Amosaic /məʊ ˈzejɪk/ is a pattern or image made of small regular or irregular pieces of colored stone, glass or ceramic, held in place byplaster/mortar, and covering a surface.^[1] Mosaics are often used as floor and wall decoration, and were particularly popular in theAncient Roman world.

Various examples of mosaics. Each row of 3 pictures represents a style:Ancient Greek orRoman,Byzantine andArt Nouveau

Mosaic today includes not just murals and pavements, but also artwork, hobby crafts, and industrial and construction forms.

Mosaics have a long history, starting inMesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC.Pebble mosaics were made inTiryns inMycenean Greece; mosaics with patterns and pictures became widespread in classical times, both inAncient Greece andAncient Rome. Early Christianbasilicas from the 4th century onwards were decorated with wall and ceiling mosaics. Mosaic art flourished in theByzantine Empire from the 6th to the 15th centuries; that tradition was adopted by theNormanKingdom of Sicily in the 12th century, by the eastern-influencedRepublic of Venice, and among theRus. Mosaic fell out of fashion in theRenaissance, though artists likeRaphael continued to practice the old technique. Roman and Byzantine influence led Jewish artists to decorate 5th and 6th century synagogues in theMiddle East with floor mosaics.

Figurative mosaic, but mostly without human figures, was widely used on religious buildings and palaces in earlyIslamic art, including Islam's first great religious building, theDome of the Rock inJerusalem, and theUmayyad Mosque inDamascus. Such mosaics went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the 8th century, except for geometrical patterns in techniques such aszellij, which remain popular in many areas.

Modern mosaics are made by artists and craftspeople around the world. Many materials other than traditional stone, ceramic tesserae, enameled and stained glass may be employed, including shells, beads, charms, chains, gears, coins, and pieces of costume jewelry.

Traditional mosaics are made of small cubes of roughly square pieces of stone or hand made glass enamel of different colours, known astesserae. Some of the earliest mosaics were made of natural pebbles, originally used to reinforce floors.^[2]

Mosaic skinning (covering objects with mosaic glass) is done with thin enameled glass and opaque stained glass. Modern mosaic art is made from any material in any size ranging from carved stone, bottle caps, and found objects.

The earliest known examples of mosaics made of different materials were found at a temple building in Abra,Mesopotamia, and are dated to the second half of 3rd millennium BC. They consist of pieces of colored stones, shells and ivory. Excavations atSusa andChogha Zanbil show evidence of the first glazed tiles, dating from around 1500 BC.^[3] However, mosaic patterns were not used until the times ofSassanid Empire and Roman influence.

Bronze Age pebble mosaics have been found atTiryns;^[2] mosaics of the 4th century BC are found in theMacedonian palace-city ofAegae, and the 4th-century BC mosaic ofThe Beauty of Durrës discovered inDurrës,Albania in 1916, is an early figural example; the Greek figural style was mostly formed in the 3rd century BC. Mythological subjects, or scenes of hunting or other pursuits of the wealthy, were popular as the centrepieces of a larger geometric design, with strongly emphasized borders.^[4]Pliny the Elder mentions the artistSosus of Pergamon by name, describing his mosaics of the food left on a floor after a feast and of a group of doves drinking from a bowl.^[5]Both of these themes were widely copied.^[6]

Greek figural mosaics could have been copied or adapted paintings, a far more prestigious artform, and the style was enthusiastically adopted by the Romans so that large floor mosaics enriched the floors ofHellenisticvillas andRoman dwellings from Britain toDura-Europos.

Most recorded names of Roman mosaic workers are Greek, suggesting they dominated high quality work across the empire; no doubt most ordinary craftsmen were slaves. Splendid mosaic floors are found in Roman villas acrossNorth Africa, in places such asCarthage, and can still be seen in the extensive collection inBardo Museum inTunis,Tunisia.

There were two main techniques in Greco-Roman mosaic:opus vermiculatum used tinytesserae, typically cubes of 4 millimeters or less, and was produced in workshops in relatively small panels which were transported to the site glued to some temporary support. The tinytesserae allowed very fine detail, and an approach to the illusionism of painting. Often small panels calledemblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal technique wasopus tessellatum, using larger tesserae, which was laid on site.^[7] There was a distinct native Italian style using black on a white background, which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work.^[8]

In Rome, Nero and his architects used mosaics to cover some surfaces of walls and ceilings in theDomus Aurea, built 64 AD, and wall mosaics are also found atPompeii and neighbouring sites. However it seems that it was not until the Christian era that figural wall mosaics became a major form of artistic expression. The Roman church ofSanta Costanza, which served as amausoleum for one or more of the Imperial family, has both religious mosaic and decorative secular ceiling mosaics on a round vault, which probably represent the style of contemporary palace decoration.

The mosaics of theVilla Romana del Casale nearPiazza Armerina inSicily are the largest collection of late Roman mosaicsin situ in the world, and are protected as aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. The largevilla rustica, which was probably owned by EmperorMaximian, was built largely in the early 4th century. The mosaics were covered and protected for 700 years by a landslide that occurred in the 12th Century. The most important pieces are theCircus Scene, the 64m longGreat Hunting Scene, theLittle Hunt, theLabours of Hercules and the famousBikini Girls, showing women undertaking a range of sporting activities in garments that resemble 20th Centurybikinis. Theperistyle, the imperial apartments and thethermae were also decorated with ornamental andmythological mosaics.^[9] Other important examples of Roman mosaic art in Sicily were unearthed on the Piazza Vittoria inPalermo where two houses were discovered. The most important scenes there depicted are anOrpheus mosaic,Alexander the Great's Hunt and theFour Seasons.

In 1913 theZliten mosaic, aRoman mosaic famous for its many scenes from gladiatorial contests, hunting and everyday life, was discovered in theLibyan town ofZliten. In 2000 archaeologists working inLeptis Magna,Libya, uncovered a 30 ft length of five colorful mosaics created during the 1st or 2nd century AD. The mosaics show a warrior in combat with a deer, four young men wrestling a wild bull to the ground, and a gladiator resting in a state of fatigue, staring at his slain opponent. The mosaics decorated the walls of a cold plunge pool in a bath house within a Roman villa. The gladiator mosaic is noted by scholars as one of the finest examples of mosaic art ever seen – a "masterpiece comparable in quality with theAlexander Mosaic inPompeii."

A specific genre of Roman mosaic was calledasaroton (Greek for "unswept floor"). It depicted intrompe-l'œil style the feast leftovers on the floors of wealthy houses.^[10]

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  Stag Hunt Mosaic from theHouse of the Abduction of Helen atPella,ancient Macedonia, late 4th century BC
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  A mosaic of theKasta Tomb inAmphipolis depicting the abduction ofPersephone byPluto, 4th century BC
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  AHellenistic Greek mosaic depicting the godDionysos as a wingeddaimon riding on a tiger, fromthe House of Dionysos atDelos in theSouth Aegeanregion ofGreece, late 2nd century BC
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  AHellenistic Greek mosaic of anymph riding on a marine creature, from thePalace of the Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes,Greece, 2nd century BC
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  This centaur mosaic was found on the site of the Roman emperorHadrian'sVilla nearTivoli,Italy.Altes Museum, Berlin.
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  Roman mosaic ofUlysses, from Carthage, 2nd century AD, now in theBardo Museum,Tunisia
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  Cave canem mosaics ('Beware of the dog') were a popular motif for the thresholds ofRoman villas
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  A small part ofThe Great Pavement, a Roman mosaic laid in AD 325 atWoodchester,Gloucestershire, England
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  TheZliten mosaic showinggladiators, 2nd century AD
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  Roman mosaic found atCalleva Atrebatum (Silchester)
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  A Roman mosaic depicting the wedding ofDionysos andAriadne, withSilenus and asatyr, 2nd century AD,Tunis, Tunisia
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  A mosaic showingMedusa and representational figures of the four seasons, fromPalencia, Spain, made between 167 and 200 AD
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  Epiphany ofDionysus mosaic, from the Villa of Dionysus (2nd century AD) inDion, Greece. Now in theArcheological Museum of Dion.
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  Villa Romana del Casale ofPiazza Armerina, 4th century AD
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  Late Roman mosaics at Villa RomanaLa Olmeda,Spain, 4th-5th centuries AD
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  Detail of a princess ofSkyros (from a larger scene of theIliad depicting her andother princesses fawning overAchilles asOdysseus looks on), from the villa ofLa Olmeda, Spain, 4th-5th centuries AD
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  Judgment of Paris, marble, limestone and glass tesserae, 115–150 AD; from the Atrium House triclinium inAntioch-on-the-Orontes
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  Triumph ofPoseidon andAmphitrite showing the couplein procession, detail of amosaic fromCirta,Roman Africa, 315–325 AD,Louvre
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  Mosaic of Orpheus from Caralis, modern Cagliari (Italy), now in Archeological Museum of Turin
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  House of the Neptune Mosaic Casa di Nettuno ed Anfitrite (Ins. V) - Triclinium (dining room) decor
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  (Gaziantep Museum of Archeology)(Zeugma)

With the building of Christianbasilicas in the late 4th century, wall and ceiling mosaics were adopted for Christian uses. The earliest examples of Christian basilicas have not survived, but the mosaics ofSanta Constanza andSanta Pudenziana, both from the 4th century, still exist. The winemaking putti in theambulatory of Santa Constanza still follow the classical tradition in that they represent the feast ofBacchus, which symbolizes transformation or change, and are thus appropriate for a mausoleum, the original function of this building. In another great Constantinian basilica, theChurch of the Nativity inBethlehem the original mosaic floor with typical Roman geometric motifs is partially preserved. The so-calledTomb of the Julii, near the crypt beneathSt Peter's Basilica, is a 4th-century vaulted tomb with wall and ceiling mosaics that are given Christian interpretations. TheRotunda of Galerius inThessaloniki, converted into a Christian church during the course of the 4th century, was embellished with very high artistic quality mosaics. Only fragments survive of the original decoration, especially a band depicting saints with hands raised in prayer, in front of complex architectural fantasies.

In the following centuryRavenna, the capital of theWestern Roman Empire, became the center of late Roman mosaic art (see details in Ravenna section).Milan also served as the capital of the western empire in the 4th century. In theSt Aquilinus Chapel of theBasilica of San Lorenzo, mosaics executed in the late 4th and early 5th centuries depict Christ with the Apostles and the Abduction ofElijah; these mosaics are outstanding for their bright colors, naturalism and adherence to the classical canons of order and proportion. The surviving apse mosaic of theBasilica of Sant'Ambrogio, which shows Christ enthroned between Saint Gervasius and Saint Protasius and angels before a golden background date back to the 5th and to the 8th century, although it was restored many times later. The baptistery of the basilica, which was demolished in the 15th century, had a vault covered with gold-leaf tesserae, large quantities of which were found when the site was excavated. In the small shrine of San Vittore in ciel d'oro, now a chapel of Sant'Ambrogio, every surface is covered with mosaics from the second half of the 5th century. Saint Victor is depicted in the center of the golden dome, while figures of saints are shown on the walls before a blue background. The low spandrels give space for the symbols of the four Evangelists.

Albingaunum was the main Roman port ofLiguria. The octagonal baptistery of the town was decorated in the 5th century with high quality blue and white mosaics representing the Apostles. The surviving remains are somewhat fragmented.Massilia remained a thriving port and a Christian spiritual center in Southern Gaul where favourable societal and economic conditions ensured the survival of mosaic art in the 5th and 6th centuries. The large baptistery, once the grandest building of its kind in Western Europe, had a geometric floor mosaic which is only known from 19th century descriptions. Other parts of the episcopal complex were also decorated with mosaics as new finds, that were unearthed in the 2000s, attest. The funerarybasilica of Saint Victor, built in a quarry outside the walls, was decorated with mosaics but only a small fragment with blue and green scrolls survived on the intrados of an arch (the basilica was later buried under a medieval abbey).

A mosaic pavement depicting humans, animals and plants from the original 4th-century cathedral ofAquileia has survived in the later medieval church. This mosaic adopts pagan motifs such as the Nilotic scene, but behind the traditional naturalistic content is Christian symbolism such as theichthys. The 6th-century early Christian basilicas of Sant' Eufemiait:Basilica di Sant'Eufemia (Grado) and Santa Maria delle Grazie inGrado also have mosaic floors.^[11]

In the 5th-centuryRavenna, the capital of theWestern Roman Empire, became the center of late Roman mosaic art. TheMausoleum of Galla Placidia was decorated with mosaics of high artistic quality in 425–430. The vaults of the small, cross-shaped structure are clad with mosaics on blue background. The central motif above the crossing is a golden cross in the middle of the starry sky. Another great building established byGalla Placidia was the church ofSan Giovanni Evangelista. She erected it in fulfillment of a vow that she made having escaped from a deadly storm in 425 on the sea voyage from Constantinople to Ravenna. The mosaics depicted the storm, portraits of members of the western and eastern imperial family and the bishop of Ravenna,Peter Chrysologus. They are known only from Renaissance sources because almost all were destroyed in 1747.^[12]

Ostrogoths kept alive the tradition in the 6th century, as the mosaics of theArian Baptistry,Baptistry of Neon,Archbishop's Chapel, and the earlier phase mosaics in theBasilica of San Vitale andBasilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo testify.

After 539, Ravenna was reconquered by the Romans in the form of theEastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) and became the seat of theExarchate of Ravenna. The greatest development of Christian mosaics unfolded in the second half of the 6th century. Outstanding examples of Byzantine mosaic art are the later phase mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. The mosaic depicting Emperor SaintJustinian I andEmpress Theodora in the Basilica of San Vitale were executed shortly after the Byzantine conquest. The mosaics of theBasilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe were made around 549. The anti-Arian theme is obvious in the apse mosaic ofSan Michele in Affricisco, executed in 545–547 (largely destroyed; the remains inBerlin).

The last example of Byzantine mosaics in Ravenna was commissioned by bishop Reparatus between 673 and 679 in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. The mosaic panel in the apse showing the bishop with EmperorConstantine IV is obviously an imitation of the Justinian panel in San Vitale.

The mosaic pavement of the Vrina Plain basilica ofButrint,Albania appear to pre-date that of the Baptistery by almost a generation, dating to the last quarter of the 5th or the first years of the 6th century. The mosaic displays a variety of motifs including sea-creatures, birds, terrestrial beasts, fruits, flowers, trees and abstracts – designed to depict a terrestrial paradise of God's creation. Superimposed on this scheme are two large tablets, tabulae ansatae, carrying inscriptions. A variety of fish, a crab, a lobster, shrimps, mushrooms, flowers, a stag and two cruciform designs surround the smaller of the two inscriptions, which reads: In fulfilment of the vow (prayer) of those whose names God knows. This anonymous dedicatory inscription is a public demonstration of the benefactors' humility and an acknowledgement of God's omniscience.

The abundant variety of natural life depicted in the Butrint mosaics celebrates the richness of God's creation; some elements also have specific connotations. Thekantharos vase and vine refer to theeucharist, the symbol of the sacrifice of Christ leading to salvation. Peacocks are symbols of paradise and resurrection; shown eating or drinking from the vase they indicate the route to eternal life. Deer or stags were commonly used as images of the faithful aspiring to Christ: "As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after thee, O God." Water-birds and fish and other sea-creatures can indicate baptism as well as the members of the Church who are christened.

Christian mosaic art also flourished in Rome, gradually declining as conditions became more difficult in theEarly Middle Ages. 5th century mosaics can be found over the triumphal arch and in the nave of the basilica ofSanta Maria Maggiore. The 27 surviving panels of the nave are the most important mosaic cycle in Rome of this period. Two other important 5th century mosaics are lost but we know them from 17th-century drawings. In the apse mosaic ofSant'Agata dei Goti (462–472, destroyed in 1589) Christ was seated on a globe with the twelve Apostles flanking him, six on either side. AtSant'Andrea in Catabarbara (468–483, destroyed in 1686) Christ appeared in the center, flanked on either side by three Apostles. Four streams flowed from the little mountain supporting Christ. The original 5th-century apse mosaic of theSanta Sabina was replaced by a very similar fresco byTaddeo Zuccari in 1559. The composition probably remained unchanged: Christ flanked by male and female saints, seated on a hill while lambs drinking from a stream at its feet. All three mosaics had a similar iconography.

6th-century pieces are rare in Rome but the mosaics inside the triumphal arch of the basilica ofSan Lorenzo fuori le mura belong to this era. TheChapel of Ss. Primo e Feliciano inSanto Stefano Rotondo has very interesting and rare mosaics from the 7th century. This chapel was built byPope Theodore I as a family burial place.

In the 7th–9th centuries Rome fell under the influence of Byzantine art, noticeable on the mosaics ofSanta Prassede,Santa Maria in Domnica,Sant'Agnese fuori le Mura,Santa Cecilia in Trastevere,Santi Nereo e Achilleo and the San Venanzio chapel ofSan Giovanni in Laterano. The great dining hall ofPope Leo III in theLateran Palace was also decorated with mosaics. They were all destroyed later except for one example, the so-calledTriclinio Leoniano of which a copy was made in the 18th century. Another great work of Pope Leo, the apse mosaic ofSanta Susanna, depicted Christ with the Pope andCharlemagne on one side, and SS. Susanna and Felicity on the other. It was plastered over during a renovation in 1585. PopePaschal I (817–824) embellished the church ofSanto Stefano del Cacco with an apsidal mosaic which depicted the pope with a model of the church (destroyed in 1607).

The fragment of an 8th-century mosaic, theEpiphany is one of the very rare remaining pieces of the medieval decoration ofOld St. Peter's Basilica, demolished in the late 16th century. The precious fragment is kept in the sacristy ofSanta Maria in Cosmedin. It proves the high artistic quality of the destroyed St. Peter's mosaics.

Mosaics were more central to Byzantine culture than to that of Western Europe. Byzantine church interiors were generally covered with golden mosaics. Mosaic art flourished in theByzantine Empire from the 6th to the 15th centuries. The majority of Byzantine mosaics were destroyed without trace during wars and conquests, but the surviving remains still form a fine collection.^[13]

The great buildings ofEmperor Justinian like theHagia Sophia inConstantinople, theNea Church inJerusalem and the rebuiltChurch of the Nativity inBethlehem were certainly embellished with mosaics but none of these survived.

Important fragments survived from the mosaic floor of theGreat Palace of Constantinople which was commissioned duringJustinian's reign. The figures, animals, plants all are entirely classical but they are scattered before a plain background. The portrait of a moustached man, probably a Gothic chieftain, is considered the most important surviving mosaic of the Justinianian age. The so-calledsmall sekreton of the palace was built duringJustin II's reign around 565–577. Some fragments survive from the mosaics of this vaulted room. The vine scroll motifs are very similar to those in the Santa Constanza and they still closely follow the Classical tradition. There are remains of floral decoration in theChurch of the Acheiropoietos inThessaloniki (5th–6th centuries).

In the 6th century,Ravenna, the capital of Byzantine Italy, became the center of mosaic making.Istria also boasts some important examples from this era. TheEuphrasian Basilica inParentium was built in the middle of the 6th century and decorated with mosaics depicting theTheotokos flanked by angels and saints.

Fragments remain from the mosaics of theChurch of Santa Maria Formosa inPola. These pieces were made during the 6th century by artists from Constantinople. Their pure Byzantine style is different from the contemporary Ravennate mosaics.

Very few early Byzantine mosaics survived theIconoclastic destruction of the 8th century. Among the rare examples are the 6th-centuryChrist in majesty (orEzekiel's Vision) mosaic in the apse of theChurch of Hosios David inThessaloniki that was hidden behind mortar during those dangerous times. Nine mosaic panels in theHagios Demetrios Church, which were made between 634 and 730, also escaped destruction. Unusually almost all representSaint Demetrius of Thessaloniki, often with suppliants before him. This iconoclasm was almost certainly because of nearby Muslims' beliefs.

In theIconoclastic era, figural mosaics were also condemned as idolatry. The Iconoclastic churches were embellished with plain gold mosaics with only one great cross in the apse like theHagia Irene in Constantinople (after 740). There were similar crosses in the apses of theHagia Sophia Church in Thessaloniki and in theChurch of the Dormition inNicaea. The crosses were substituted with the image of theTheotokos in both churches after the victory of theIconodules (787–797 and in 8th–9th centuries respectively, the Dormition church was totally destroyed in 1922).

A similar Theotokos image flanked by two archangels were made for theHagia Sophia in Constantinople in 867. The dedication inscription says: "The images which the impostors had cast down here pious emperors have again set up." In the 870s the so-calledlarge sekreton of theGreat Palace of Constantinople was decorated with the images of the four great iconodule patriarchs.

The post-Iconoclastic era was the heyday of Byzantine art with the most beautiful mosaics executed. The mosaics of theMacedonian Renaissance (867–1056) carefully mingled traditionalism with innovation. Constantinopolitan mosaics of this age followed the decoration scheme first used in EmperorBasil I'sNea Ekklesia. Not only this prototype was later totally destroyed but each surviving composition is battered so it is necessary to move from church to church to reconstruct the system.

An interesting set of Macedonian-era mosaics make up the decoration of theHosios Loukas Monastery. In the narthex there is the Crucifixion, the Pantokrator and the Anastasis above the doors, while in the church the Theotokos (apse), Pentecost, scenes from Christ's life and ermit St Loukas (all executed before 1048). The scenes are treated with a minimum of detail and the panels are dominated with the gold setting.

TheNea Moni Monastery onChios was established byConstantine Monomachos in 1043–1056. The exceptional mosaic decoration of the dome showing probably the nine orders of the angels was destroyed in 1822 but other panels survived (Theotokos with raised hands, four evangelists with seraphim, scenes from Christ's life and an interesting Anastasis where King Salomon bears resemblance to Constantine Monomachos). In comparison with Osios Loukas Nea Moni mosaics contain more figures, detail, landscape and setting.

Another great undertaking by Constantine Monomachos was the restoration of theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre inJerusalem between 1042 and 1048. Nothing survived of the mosaics which covered the walls and the dome of the edifice but the Russian abbot Daniel, who visited Jerusalem in 1106–1107 left a description: "Lively mosaics of the holy prophets are under the ceiling, over the tribune. The altar is surmounted by a mosaic image of Christ. In the main altar one can see the mosaic of the Exaltation of Adam. In the apse the Ascension of Christ. The Annunciation occupies the two pillars next to the altar."^[14]

TheDaphni Monastery houses the best preserved complex of mosaics from the early Comnenan period (ca. 1100) when the austere and hieratic manner typical for theMacedonian epoch and represented by the awesomeChrist Pantocrator image inside the dome, was metamorphosing into a more intimate and delicate style, of whichThe Angel before St Joachim — with its pastoral backdrop, harmonious gestures and pensive lyricism – is considered a superb example.

The 9th- and 10th-century mosaics of theHagia Sophia in Constantinople are truly classical Byzantine artworks. The north and south tympana beneath the dome was decorated with figures of prophets, saints and patriarchs. Above the principal door from the narthex we can see anEmperor kneeling before Christ (late 9th or early 10th century). Above the door from the southwest vestibule to the narthex another mosaic shows theTheotokos with Justinian and Constantine.Justinian I is offering the model of the church to Mary whileConstantine is holding a model of the city in his hand. Both emperors are beardless – this is an example for conscious archaization as contemporary Byzantine rulers were bearded. A mosaic panel on the gallery showsChrist withConstantine Monomachos andEmpress Zoe (1042–1055). The emperor gives a bulgingmoney sack to Christ as a donation for the church.

The dome of theHagia Sophia Church in Thessaloniki is decorated with anAscension mosaic (c. 885). The composition resembles the great baptistries inRavenna, with apostles standing between palms and Christ in the middle. The scheme is somewhat unusual as the standard post-Iconoclastic formula for domes contained only the image of thePantokrator.

There are very few existing mosaics from theKomnenian period but this paucity must be due to accidents of survival and gives a misleading impression. The only surviving 12th-century mosaic work inConstantinople is a panel in Hagia Sophia depicting EmperorJohn II and EmpressEirene with theTheotokos (1122–34). The empress with her long braided hair and rosy cheeks is especially capturing. It must be a lifelike portrayal because Eirene was really a redhead as her original Hungarian name,Piroska shows. The adjacent portrait of EmperorAlexios I Komnenos on a pier (from 1122) is similarly personal. The imperial mausoleum of theKomnenos dynasty, thePantokrator Monastery was certainly decorated with great mosaics but these were later destroyed. The lack of Komnenian mosaics outside the capital is even more apparent. There is only a "Communion of the Apostles" in the apse of the cathedral ofSerres.

A striking technical innovation of the Komnenian period was the production of very precious, miniature mosaic icons. In these icons the small tesserae (with sides of 1 mm or less) were set on wax or resin on a wooden panel. These products of extraordinary craftmanship were intended for private devotion. TheLouvre Transfiguration is a very fine example from the late 12th century. The miniature mosaic of Christ in the Museo Nazionale atFlorence illustrates the more gentle, humanistic conception of Christ which appeared in the 12th century.

The sack of Constantinople in 1204 caused the decline of mosaic art for the next five decades. After the reconquest of the city byMichael VIII Palaiologos in 1261 the Hagia Sophia was restored and a beautiful newDeesis was made on the south gallery. This huge mosaic panel with figures two and a half times lifesize is really overwhelming due to its grand scale and superlative craftsmanship. The Hagia SophiaDeesis is probably the most famous Byzantine mosaic in Constantinople.

ThePammakaristos Monastery was restored byMichael Glabas, an imperial official, in the late 13th century. Only the mosaic decoration of the small burial chapel (parekklesion) of Glabas survived. This domed chapel was built by his widow, Martha around 1304–08. In the miniature dome the traditional Pantokrator can be seen with twelve prophets beneath. Unusually the apse is decorated with aDeesis, probably due to the funerary function of the chapel.

TheChurch of the Holy Apostles inThessaloniki was built in 1310–14. Although some vandal systematically removed the gold tesserae of the background it can be seen that the Pantokrator and the prophets in the dome follow the traditional Byzantine pattern. Many details are similar to the Pammakaristos mosaics so it is supposed that the same team of mosaicists worked in both buildings. Another building with a related mosaic decoration is theTheotokos Paregoritissa Church inArta. The church was established by the Despot ofEpirus in 1294–96. In the dome is the traditional stern Pantokrator, with prophets and cherubim below.

The greatest mosaic work of thePalaeologan renaissance in art is the decoration of theChora Church in Constantinople. Although the mosaics of the naos have not survived except three panels, the decoration of the exonarthex and the esonarthex constitute the most important full-scale mosaic cycle in Constantinople after the Hagia Sophia. They were executed around 1320 by the command ofTheodore Metochites. The esonarthex has two fluted domes, specially created to provide the ideal setting for the mosaic images of the ancestors of Christ. The southern one is called the Dome of the Pantokrator while the northern one is the Dome of the Theotokos. The most important panel of the esonarthex depicts Theodore Metochites wearing a hugeturban, offering the model of the church to Christ. The walls of both narthexes are decorated with mosaic cycles from the life of the Virgin and the life of Christ. These panels show the influence of the Italiantrecento on Byzantine art especially the more natural settings, landscapes, figures.

The last Byzantine mosaic work was created for the Hagia Sophia, Constantinople in the middle of the 14th century. The great eastern arch of the cathedral collapsed in 1346, bringing down the third of the main dome. By 1355 not only the big Pantokrator image was restored but new mosaics were set on the eastern arch depicting the Theotokos, the Baptist and EmperorJohn V Palaiologos (discovered only in 1989).

In addition to the large-scale monuments several miniature mosaic icons of outstanding quality was produced for the Palaiologos court and nobles. The loveliest examples from the 14th century areAnnunciation in theVictoria and Albert Museum and a mosaic diptych in the Cathedral Treasury ofFlorence representing theTwelve Feasts of the Church.

In the troubled years of the 15th century the fatally weakened empire could not afford luxurious mosaics. Churches were decorated with wall-paintings in this era and after theTurkish conquest.

The last great period of Roman mosaic art was the 12th–13th century whenRome developed its own distinctive artistic style, free from the strict rules of eastern tradition and with a more realistic portrayal of figures in the space. Well-known works of this period are the floral mosaics of theBasilica di San Clemente, the façade ofSanta Maria in Trastevere andSan Paolo fuori le Mura. The beautiful apse mosaic of Santa Maria in Trastevere (1140) depicts Christ and Mary sitting next to each other on the heavenly throne, the first example of this iconographic scheme. A similar mosaic, theCoronation of the Virgin, decorates the apse ofSanta Maria Maggiore. It is a work ofJacopo Torriti from 1295. The mosaics of Torriti andJacopo da Camerino in the apse ofSan Giovanni in Laterano from 1288 to 1294 were thoroughly restored in 1884. The apse mosaic ofSan Crisogono is attributed toPietro Cavallini, the greatest Roman painter of the 13th century. Six scenes from the life of Mary in Santa Maria in Trastevere were also executed by Cavallini in 1290. These mosaics are praised for their realistic portrayal and attempts at perspective. There is an interesting mosaic medallion from 1210 above the gate of the church ofSan Tommaso in Formis showing Christ enthroned between a white and a black slave. The church belonged to the Order of theTrinitarians which was devoted to ransoming Christian slaves.

The greatNavicella mosaic (1305–1313) in the atrium of the Old St. Peter's is attributed toGiotto di Bondone. The giant mosaic, commissioned by CardinalJacopo Stefaneschi, was originally situated on the eastern porch of the old basilica and occupied the whole wall above the entrance arcade facing the courtyard. It depicted St. Peter walking on the waters. This extraordinary work was mainly destroyed during the construction of the new St. Peter's in the 17th century. Navicella means "little ship" referring to the large boat which dominated the scene, and whose sail, filled by the storm, loomed over the horizon. Such a natural representation of a seascape was known only from ancient works of art.

The heyday of mosaic making inSicily was the age of the independentNorman kingdom in the 12th century. The Norman kings adopted the Byzantine tradition of mosaic decoration to enhance the somewhat dubious legality of their rule. Greek masters working in Sicily developed their own style, that shows the influence of Western European and Islamic artistic tendencies. Best examples of Sicilian mosaic art are theCappella Palatina ofRoger II,^[15] theMartorana church inPalermo and the cathedrals ofCefalù andMonreale.

The Cappella Palatina clearly shows evidence for blending the eastern and western styles. The dome (1142–42) and the eastern end of the church (1143–1154) were decorated with typical Byzantine mosaics i.e. Pantokrator, angels, scenes from the life of Christ. Even the inscriptions are written in Greek. The narrative scenes of the nave (Old Testament, life of Sts Peter and Paul) are resembling to the mosaics of the Old St. Peter's and St. Paul's Basilica inRome (Latin inscriptions, 1154–66).

The Martorana church (decorated around 1143) looked originally even more Byzantine although important parts were later demolished. The dome mosaic is similar to that of the Cappella Palatina, with Christ enthroned in the middle and four bowed, elongated angels. The Greek inscriptions, decorative patterns, and evangelists in thesquinches are obviously executed by the same Greek masters who worked on the Cappella Palatina. The mosaic depicting Roger II of Sicily, dressed in Byzantine imperial robes and receiving the crown by Christ, was originally in the demolishednarthex together with another panel, theTheotokos with Georgios of Antiochia, the founder of the church.

InCefalù (1148) only the high, French Gothic presbytery was covered with mosaics: thePantokrator on the semidome of the apse andcherubim on the vault. On the walls are Latin and Greek saints, with Greek inscriptions.

TheMonreale mosaics constitute the largest decoration of this kind in Italy, covering 0,75 hectares with at least 100 million glass and stone tesserae. This huge work was executed between 1176 and 1186 by the order of KingWilliam II of Sicily. The iconography of the mosaics in the presbytery is similar to Cefalu while the pictures in the nave are almost the same as the narrative scenes in the Cappella Palatina. The Martorana mosaic of Roger II blessed by Christ was repeated with the figure of King William II instead of his predecessor. Another panel shows the king offering the model of the cathedral to the Theotokos.

TheCathedral of Palermo, rebuilt by Archbishop Walter in the same time (1172–85), was also decorated with mosaics but none of these survived except the 12th-century image ofMadonna del Tocco above the western portal.

The cathedral ofMessina, consecrated in 1197, was also decorated with a great mosaic cycle, originally on par with Cefalù and Monreale, but heavily damaged and restored many times later. In the left apse of the same cathedral 14th-century mosaics survived, representing the Madonna and Child between Saints Agata and Lucy, the Archangels Gabriel and Michael and Queens Eleonora and Elisabetta.

Southern Italy was also part of the Norman kingdom but great mosaics did not survive in this area except the fine mosaic pavement of theOtranto Cathedral from 1166, with mosaics tied into a tree of life, mostly still preserved. The scenes depict biblical characters, warrior kings, medieval beasts, allegories of the months and working activity. Only fragments survived from the original mosaic decoration ofAmalfi's Norman Cathedral. The mosaic ambos in the churches ofRavello prove that mosaic art was widespread in Southern Italy during the 11th–13th centuries.

The palaces of the Norman kings were decorated with mosaics depicting animals and landscapes. The secular mosaics are seemingly more Eastern in character than the great religious cycles and show a strong Persian influence. The most notable examples are theSala di Ruggero in thePalazzo dei Normanni,Palermo and theSala della Fontana in theZisa summer palace, both from the 12th century.

In parts ofItaly, which were under eastern artistic influences, likeSicily andVenice, mosaic making never went out of fashion in the Middle Ages. The whole interior of theSt Mark's Basilica in Venice is clad with elaborate, golden mosaics. The oldest scenes were executed by Greek masters in the late 11th century but the majority of the mosaics are works of local artists from the 12th–13th centuries. The decoration of the church was finished only in the 16th century. One hundred and ten scenes of mosaics in the atrium of St Mark's were based directly on the miniatures of theCotton Genesis, a Byzantine manuscript that was brought to Venice after the sack of Constantinople (1204). The mosaics were executed in the 1220s.

Other important Venetian mosaics can be found in theCathedral of Santa Maria Assunta inTorcello from the 12th century, and in the Basilical of Santi Maria e Donato inMurano with a restored apse mosaic from the 12th century and a beautiful mosaic pavement (1140). The apse of the San Cipriano Church in Murano was decorated with an impressive golden mosaic from the early 13th century showing Christ enthroned with Mary, St John and the two patron saints, Cipriano and Cipriana. When the church was demolished in the 19th century, the mosaic was bought byFrederick William IV of Prussia. It was reassembled in theFriedenskirche ofPotsdam in the 1840s.

Trieste was also an important center of mosaic art. The mosaics in the apse of theCathedral of San Giusto were laid by master craftsmen fromVeneto in the 12th–13th centuries.

The monastery ofGrottaferrata founded by GreekBasilian monks and consecrated by the Pope in 1024 was decorated withItalo-Byzantine mosaics, some of which survived in thenarthex and the interior. The mosaics on the triumphalchancel arch portray the Twelve Apostles sitting beside an empty throne, evoking Christ's ascent to Heaven. It is a Byzantine work of the 12th century. There is a beautiful 11th-century Deesis above the main portal.

The Abbot ofMonte Cassino,Desiderius sent envoys toConstantinople some time after 1066 to hire expert Byzantine mosaicists for the decoration of the rebuilt abbey church. According to chroniclerLeo of Ostia the Greek artists decorated the apse, the arch and the vestibule of the basilica. Their work was admired by contemporaries but was totally destroyed in later centuries except two fragments depicting greyhounds (now in the Monte Cassino Museum). "The abbot in his wisdom decided that great number of young monks in the monastery should be thoroughly initiated in these arts" – says the chronicler about the role of the Greeks in the revival of mosaic art in medieval Italy.

InFlorence a magnificiant mosaic of theLast Judgement decorates the dome of theBaptistery. The earliest mosaics, works of art of many unknown Venetian craftsmen (including probablyCimabue), date from 1225. The covering of the ceiling was probably not completed until the 14th century.

The impressive mosaic ofChrist in Majesty, flanked by the Virgin Mary and St. John the Evangelist in the apse of thecathedral of Pisa was designed byCimabue in 1302. It evokes the Monreale mosaics in style. It survived the great fire of 1595 which destroyed most of the medieval interior decoration.

Sometimes not only church interiors but façades were also decorated with mosaics in Italy like in the case of theSt Mark's Basilica in Venice (mainly from the 17th–19th centuries, but the oldest one from 1270 to 1275, "The burial of St Mark in the first basilica"), theCathedral of Orvieto (golden Gothic mosaics from the 14th century, many times redone) and theBasilica di San Frediano inLucca (huge, striking golden mosaic representing the Ascension of Christ with the apostles below, designed byBerlinghiero Berlinghieri in the 13th century). TheCathedral of Spoleto is also decorated on the upper façade with a huge mosaic portraying theBlessing Christ (signed by one Solsternus from 1207).

Beyond theAlps the first important example of mosaic art was the decoration of thePalatine Chapel in Aachen, commissioned byCharlemagne. It was completely destroyed in a fire in 1650. A rare example of surviving Carolingian mosaics is theapsesemi-dome decoration of the oratory ofGermigny-des-Prés built in 805–806 byTheodulf,bishop of Orléans, a leading figure of theCarolingian Renaissance. This unique work of art, rediscovered only in the 19th century, had no followers.

Only scant remains prove that mosaics were still used in the Early Middle Ages. The Abbey of Saint-Martial inLimoges, originally an important place of pilgrimage, was totally demolished during theFrench Revolution except its crypt which was rediscovered in the 1960s. A mosaic panel was unearthed which was dated to the 9th century. It somewhat incongruously uses cubes of gilded glass and deep green marble, probably taken from antique pavements. This could also be the case with the early 9th century mosaic found under theBasilica of Saint-Quentin inPicardy, where antique motifs are copied but using only simple colors. The mosaics in the Cathedral of Saint-Jean atLyon have been dated to the 11th century because they employ the same non-antique simple colors. More fragments were found on the site of Saint-Croix atPoitiers which might be from the 6th or 9th century.

Later fresco replaced the more labor-intensive technique of mosaic in Western-Europe, although mosaics were sometimes used as decoration on medieval cathedrals. The Royal Basilica of the Hungarian kings inSzékesfehérvár (Alba Regia) had a mosaic decoration in the apse. It was probably a work of Venetian or Ravennese craftsmen, executed in the first decades of the 11th century. The mosaic was almost totally destroyed together with the basilica in the 17th century. The Golden Gate of theSt. Vitus Cathedral inPrague got its name from the golden 14th-century mosaic of theLast Judgement above the portal. It was executed by Venetian craftsmen.

TheCrusaders in theHoly Land also adopted mosaic decoration under local Byzantine influence. During their 12th-century reconstruction of theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre inJerusalem they complemented the existing Byzantine mosaics with new ones. Almost nothing of them survived except the "Ascension of Christ" in the Latin Chapel (now confusingly surrounded by many 20th-century mosaics). More substantial fragments were preserved from the 12th-century mosaic decoration of theChurch of the Nativity inBethlehem. The mosaics in the nave are arranged in five horizontal bands with the figures of the ancestors of Christ, Councils of the Church and angels. In the apses the Annunciation, the Nativity, Adoration of the Magi and Dormition of the Blessed Virgin can be seen. The program of redecoration of the church was completed in 1169 as a unique collaboration of the Byzantine emperor, theking of Jerusalem and the Latin Church.^[16]

In 2003, the remains of a mosaic pavement were discovered under the ruins of theBizere Monastery near the RiverMureş in present-dayRomania. The panels depict real or fantastic animal, floral, solar and geometric representations. Some archeologists supposed that it was the floor of an Orthodox church, built some time between the 10th and 11th century. Other experts claim that it was part of the later Catholic monastery on the site because it shows the signs of strong Italianate influence. The monastery was situated at that time in the territory of theKingdom of Hungary.

Although mosaics went out of fashion and were substituted by frescoes, some of the great Renaissance artists also worked with the old technique.Raphael'sCreation of the World in the dome of theChigi Chapel inSanta Maria del Popolo is a notable example that was executed by a Venetian craftsman, Luigi di Pace.

During the papacy ofClement VIII (1592–1605), the "Congregazione della Reverenda Fabbrica di San Pietro" was established, providing an independent organisation charged with completing the decorations in the newly builtSt. Peter's Basilica. Instead of frescoes the cavernous Basilica was mainly decorated with mosaics. Among the explanations are:

1. The old St. Peter's Basilica had been decorated with mosaic, as was common in churches built during the early Christian era; the 17th century followed the tradition to enhance continuity.
2. In a church like this with high walls and few windows, mosaics were brighter and reflected more light.
3. Mosaics had greater intrinsic longevity than either frescoes or canvases.
4. Mosaics had an association with bejeweled decoration, flaunting richness.

The mosaics of St. Peter's often show livelyBaroque compositions based on designs or canvases from likeCiro Ferri,Guido Reni,Domenichino,Carlo Maratta, and many others.Raphael is represented by a mosaic replica of this last painting, theTransfiguration. Many different artists contributed to the 17th- and 18th-century mosaics in St. Peter's, includingGiovanni Battista Calandra,Fabio Cristofari (died 1689), andPietro Paolo Cristofari (died 1743).^[17] Works of the Fabbrica were often used as papal gifts.

The eastern provinces of theEastern Roman and later theByzantine Empires inherited a strong artistic tradition fromLate Antiquity. Similar toItaly andConstantinople, churches and important secular buildings in theregion of Syria andEgypt were decorated with elaborate mosaic panels between the 5th and 8th centuries. The great majority of these works of art were later destroyed, but archeological excavations unearthed many surviving examples.

The single most important piece of Byzantine Christian mosaic art in the East is theMadaba Map, made between 542 and 570 as the floor of the church of Saint George atMadaba,Jordan. It was rediscovered in 1894. The Madaba Map is the oldest surviving cartographic depiction of theHoly Land. It depicts an area fromLebanon in the north to theNile Delta in the south, and from theMediterranean Sea in the west to theEastern Desert. The largest and most detailed element of the topographic depiction isJerusalem, at the center of the map. The map is enriched with many naturalistic features, like animals, fishing boats, bridges and palm trees.

One of the earliest examples ofByzantine mosaic art in the region can be found onMount Nebo, an important place of pilgrimage in the Byzantine era whereMoses died. Among the many 6th-century mosaics in the church complex (discovered after 1933) the most interesting one is located in the baptistery. The intact floor mosaic covers an area of 9 × 3 m and was laid down in 530. It depicts hunting and pastoral scenes with rich Middle Eastern flora and fauna.

The Church of Sts. Lot and Procopius was founded in 567 in Nebo village under Mount Nebo (nowKhirbet Mukhayyat). Its floor mosaic depicts everyday activities like grape harvest. Another two spectacular mosaics were discovered in the ruined Church of Preacher John nearby. One of the mosaics was placed above the other one which was completely covered and unknown until the modern restoration. The figures on the older mosaic have thus escaped the iconoclasts.^[18]

The town ofMadaba remained an important center of mosaic making during the 5th–8th centuries. In the Church of the Apostles the middle of the main panel Thalassa, goddess of the sea, can be seen surrounded by fishes and other sea creatures. Native Middle Eastern birds, mammals, plants and fruits were also added.^[19]

Important Justinian era mosaics decorated theSaint Catherine's Monastery onMount Sinai inEgypt. Generally wall mosaics have not survived in the region because of the destruction of buildings but the St. Catherine's Monastery is exceptional. On the upper wallMoses is shown in two panels on a landscape background. In the apse we can see theTransfiguration of Jesus on a golden background. The apse is surrounded with bands containing medallions of apostles and prophets, and two contemporary figure, "Abbot Longinos" and "John the Deacon". The mosaic was probably created in 565/6.

Jerusalem with its many holy places probably had the highest concentration of mosaic-covered churches but very few of them survived the subsequent waves of destructions. The present remains do not do justice to the original richness of the city. The most important is the so-called "Armenian Mosaic" which was discovered in 1894 on theStreet of the Prophets nearDamascus Gate. It depicts a vine with many branches and grape clusters, which springs from a vase. Populating the vine's branches are peacocks, ducks, storks, pigeons, an eagle, a partridge, and a parrot in a cage. The inscription reads: "For the memory and salvation of all those Armenians whose name the Lord knows." Beneath a corner of the mosaic is a small, natural cave which contained human bones dating to the 5th or 6th centuries. The symbolism of the mosaic and the presence of the burial cave indicates that the room was used as amortuary chapel.^[20]

An exceptionally well preserved, carpet-like mosaic floor was uncovered in 1949 inBethany, the early Byzantine church of theLazarium which was built between 333 and 390. Because of its purely geometrical pattern, the church floor is to be grouped with other mosaics of the time in Palestine and neighboring areas, especially the Constantinian mosaics in the central nave at Bethlehem.^[21] A second church was built above the older one during the 6th century with another more simple geometric mosaic floor.

Themonastic communities of theJudean Desert also decorated their monasteries with mosaic floors. TheMonastery of Martyrius was founded in the end of the 5th century and it was re-discovered in 1982–85. The most important work of art here is the intact geometric mosaic floor of the refectory although the severely damaged church floor was similarly rich.^[22] The mosaics in the church of the nearbyMonastery of Euthymius are of later date (discovered in 1930). They were laid down in the Umayyad era, after a devastating earthquake in 659. Two six pointed stars and a red chalice are the most important surviving features.

Mosaic art also flourished in ChristianPetra where three Byzantine churches were discovered. The most important one was uncovered in 1990. It is known that the walls were also covered with golden glass mosaics but only the floor panels survived as usual. The mosaic of the seasons in the southern aisle is from this first building period from the middle of the 5th century. In the first half of the 6th century the mosaics of the northern aisle and the eastern end of the southern aisle were installed. They depict native as well as exotic or mythological animals, and personifications of the Seasons, Ocean, Earth and Wisdom.^[23]

The Arab conquest of theMiddle East in the 7th century did not break off the art of mosaic making. Arabs learned and accepted the craft as their own and carried on the classical tradition. During the Umayyad era Christianity retained its importance, churches were built and repaired and some of the most important mosaics of the Christian East were made during the 8th century when the region was under Islamic rule.

The mosaics of the Church of St Stephen in ancient Kastron Mefaa (nowUmm ar-Rasas) were made in 785 (discovered after 1986). The perfectly preserved mosaic floor is the largest one in Jordan. On the central panel hunting and fishing scenes are depicted while another panel illustrates the most important cities of the region. The frame of the mosaic is especially decorative. Six mosaic masters signed the work: Staurachios from Esbus, Euremios, Elias, Constantinus, Germanus and Abdela. It overlays another, damaged, mosaic floor of the earlier (587) "Church of Bishop Sergius." Another four churches were excavated nearby with traces of mosaic decoration.

The last great mosaics in Madaba were made in 767 in the Church of the Virgin Mary (discovered in 1887). It is a masterpiece of the geometric style with a Greek inscription in the central medallion.

With the fall of theUmayyad dynasty in 750 the Middle East went through deep cultural changes. No great mosaics were made after the end of the 8th century and the majority of churches gradually fell into disrepair and were eventually destroyed. The tradition of mosaic making died out among the Christians and also in the Islamic community.

The craft has also been popular in early medievalRus, inherited as part of the Byzantine tradition.Yaroslav, the Grand Prince of theKievan Rus' built a large cathedral in his capital,Kyiv. The model of the church was theHagia Sophia inConstantinople, and it was also calledSaint Sophia Cathedral. It was built mainly by Byzantine master craftsmen, sent byConstantine Monomachos, between 1037 and 1046. Naturally the more important surfaces in the interior were decorated with golden mosaics. In the dome we can see the traditional sternPantokrator supported by angels. Between the 12 windows of the drum were apostles and the four evangelists on the pendentives. The apse is dominated by an orantTheotokos with aDeesis in three medallions above. Below is a Communion of the Apostles.

PrinceSviatopolk II builtSt. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery inKyiv in 1108. The mosaics of the church are undoubtedly works of Byzantine artists. Although the church was destroyed by Soviet authorities, majority of the panels were preserved. Small parts of ornamental mosaic decoration from the 12th century survived in theSaint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod but this church was largely decorated with frescoes.

Using mosaics and frescoes in the same building was a unique practice in Ukraine. Harmony was achieved by using the same dominant colors in mosaic and fresco. Both Saint Sophia Cathedral and Saint Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv use this technique.^[24] Mosaics stopped being used for church decoration as early as the 12th century in the eastern Slavic countries. Later Russian churches were decorated with frescoes, similarly then orthodox churches in the Balkan.

The apse mosaic of theGelati Monastery is a rare example of mosaic use inGeorgia. Began by kingDavid IV and completed by his sonDemetrius I of Georgia, the fragmentary panel depicts Theotokos flanked by two archangels. The use of mosaic in Gelati attests to some Byzantine influence in the country and was a demonstration of the imperial ambition of the Bagrationids. The mosaic covered church could compete in magnificence with the churches of Constantinople. Gelati is one of few mosaic creations which survived in Georgia but fragments prove that the early churches of Pitsunda and Tsromi were also decorated with mosaic as well as other, lesser known sites. The destroyed 6th century mosaic floors in thePitsunda Cathedral have been inspired by Roman prototypes. InTsromi the tesserae are still visible on the walls of the 7th-century church but only faint lines hint at the original scheme. Its central figure was Christ standing and displaying a scroll with Georgian text.

Under Roman and Byzantine influence the Jews also decorated theirsynagogues with classical floor mosaics. Many interesting examples were discovered inGalilee and theJudean Desert.

The remains of a 6th-century synagogue have been uncovered inSepphoris, which was an important centre of Jewish culture between the 3rd–7th centuries and a multicultural town inhabited by Jews, Christians and pagans. The mosaic reflects an interesting fusion of Jewish and pagan beliefs. In the center of the floor thezodiac wheel was depicted.Helios sits in the middle, in his sun chariot, and eachzodiac is matched with aJewish month. Along the sides of the mosaic are strips depicting Biblical scenes, such as the binding ofIsaac, as well as traditional rituals, including a burnt sacrifice and the offering of fruits and grains.

Another zodiac mosaic decorated the floor of theBeit Alfasynagogue which was built during the reign ofJustin I (518–27). It is regarded one of the most important mosaics discovered in Israel. Each of its three panels depicts a scene – the Holy Ark, the zodiac, and the story of the sacrifice of Isaac. In the center of the zodiac isHelios, the sun god, in his chariot. The four women in the corners of the mosaic represent the four seasons.

A third superbly preserved zodiac mosaic was discovered in theSeverus synagogue in the ancient resort town ofHammat Tiberias. In the center of the 4th-century mosaic the Sun god, Helios sits in his chariot holding the celestial sphere and a whip. Nine of the 12 signs of the zodiac survived intact. Another panel shows the Ark of Covenant and Jewish cultic objects used in the Temple at Jerusalem.

In 1936, a synagogue was excavated inJericho which was namedShalom Al Yisrael Synagogue after an inscription on its mosaic floor ("Peace on Israel"). It appears to have been in use from the 5th to 8th centuries and contained a big mosaic on the floor with drawings of theArk of the Covenant, theMenorah, aShofar and aLulav. Nearby inNaaran, there is another synagogue (discovered in 1918) from the 6th century that also has a mosaic floor.

The synagogue inEshtemoa (As-Samu) was built around the 4th century. The mosaic floor is decorated with only floral and geometric patterns. The synagogue inKhirbet Susiya (excavated in 1971–72, founded in the end of the 4th century) has three mosaic panels, the eastern one depicting aTorah shrine, twomenorahs, alulav and anetrog with columns, deer and rams. The central panel is geometric while the western one is seriously damaged but it has been suggested that it depictedDaniel in the lion's den. The Roman synagogue inEin Gedi was remodeled in the Byzantine era and a more elaborate mosaic floor was laid down above the older white panels. The usual geometric design was enriched with birds in the center. It includes the names of the signs of the zodiac and important figures from the Jewish past but not their images suggesting that it served a rather conservative community.

The ban on figurative depiction was not taken so seriously by the Jews living in ByzantineGaza. In 1966 remains of a synagogue were found in the ancient harbour area. Its mosaic floor depictsKing David asOrpheus, identified by his name in Hebrew letters. Near him were lion cubs, a giraffe and a snake listening to him playing a lyre. A further portion of the floor was divided by medallions formed by vine leaves, each of which contains an animal: a lioness suckling her cub, a giraffe, peacocks, panthers, bears, a zebra and so on. The floor was paved in 508/509. It is very similar to that of the synagogue at Maon (Menois) and the Christian church atShellal, suggesting that the same artist most probably worked at all three places.

The House of Leontius inBet She'an (excavated in 1964–72) is a rare example of a synagogue which was part of an inn. It was built in the Byzantine period. The colorful mosaic floor of the synagogue room had an outer stripe decorated with flowers and birds, around medallions with animals, created byvine trellises emerging from an amphora. The central medallion enclosed a menorah (candelabrum) beneath the word shalom (peace).

A 5th-century building inHuldah may be aSamaritan synagogue. Its mosaic floor contains typical Jewish symbols (menorah, lulav, etrog) but the inscriptions are Greek. Another Samaritan synagogue with a mosaic floor was located in Bet She'an (excavated in 1960). The floor had only decorative motifs and an aedicule (shrine) with cultic symbols. The ban on human or animal images was more strictly observed by the Samaritans than their Jewish neighbours in the same town (see above). The mosaic was laid by the same masters who made the floor of the Beit Alfa synagogue. One of the inscriptions was written in Samaritan script.

In 2003, a synagogue of the 5th or 6th century was uncovered in the coastal Ionian town ofSaranda,Albania. It had exceptional mosaics depicting items associated with Jewish holidays, including a menorah, ram's horn, and lemon tree. Mosaics in the basilica of the synagogue show the facade of what resembles aTorah, animals, trees, and other biblical symbols. The structure measures 20 by 24 m. and was probably last used in the 6th century as a church.

In South Arabia two mosaic works were excavated in a Qatabanian from the late 3rd century, those two plates formed geometric and grapevines formation reflecting the traditions of that culture. In theGhassanid era religious mosaic art flourished in their territory, so far five churches with mosaic were recorded from that era, two built by Ghassanid rulers and the other three by the Christian Arab community who wrote their names and dedications.

Tilework had been known there for about two thousand years when cultural exchange betweenSassanid Empire and Romans influencedPersian artists to create mosaic patterns.Shapur I decorated his palace with tile compositions depicting dancers, musicians, courtesans, etc. This was the only significant example offigurative Persian mosaic, which became prohibited afterArab conquest and arrival ofIslam.

Islamic architecture used mosaic technique to decorate religious buildings and palaces after theMuslim conquests of the eastern provinces of theByzantine Empire. InSyria andEgypt the Arabs were influenced by the great tradition of Roman and Early Christian mosaic art. During theUmayyad Dynasty mosaic making remained a flourishing art form in Islamic culture and it is continued in the art ofzellige andazulejo in various parts of the Arab world, althoughtile was to become the main Islamic form of wall decoration.

The first great religious building ofIslam, theDome of the Rock inJerusalem, which was built between 688 and 692, was decorated with glass mosaics both inside and outside, by craftsmen of the Byzantine tradition. Only parts of the original interior decoration survive. The rich floral motifs follow Byzantine traditions, and are "Islamic only in the sense that the vocabulary is syncretic and does not include representation of men or animals."^[25]

The most important early Islamic mosaic work is the decoration of theUmayyad Mosque inDamascus, then capital of theArab Caliphate. The mosque was built between 706 and 715. The caliph obtained 200 skilled workers from the Byzantine Emperor to decorate the building. This is evidenced by the partly Byzantine style of the decoration. The mosaics of the inner courtyard depict Paradise with beautiful trees, flowers and small hill towns and villages in the background. The mosaics include no human figures, which makes them different from the otherwise similar contemporary Byzantine works. The biggest continuous section survives under the western arcade of the courtyard, called the "Barada Panel" after the riverBarada. It is thought that the mosque used to have the largest gold mosaic in the world, at over 4 m². In 1893 a fire damaged the mosque extensively, and many mosaics were lost, although some have been restored since.

The mosaics of the Umayyad Mosque gave inspiration to later Damascene mosaic works. The Dome of the Treasury, which stands in the mosque courtyard, is covered with fine mosaics, probably dating from 13th- or 14th-century restoration work. The style of them are strikingly similar to the Barada Panel. The mausoleum of SultanBaibars,Madrassa Zahiriyah, which was built after 1277, is also decorated with a band of golden floral and architectural mosaics, running around inside the main prayer hall.^[26]

Non-religious Umayyad mosaic works were mainly floor panels which decorated the palaces of the caliphs and other high-ranking officials. They were closely modeled after the mosaics of the Roman country villas, once common in the Eastern Mediterranean. The most superb example can be found in the bath house ofHisham's Palace,Palestine which was made around 744. The main panel depicts a large tree and underneath it a lion attacking a deer (right side) and two deer peacefully grazing (left side). The panel probably represents good and bad governance. Mosaics with classical geometric motifs survived in the bath area of the 8th-century Umayyad palace complex inAnjar,Lebanon. The luxurious desert residence ofAl-Walid II inQasr al-Hallabat (in present-dayJordan) was also decorated with floor mosaics that show a high level of technical skill. The best preserved panel at Hallabat is divided by a Tree of Life flanked by "good" animals on one side and "bad" animals on the other. Among the Hallabat representations are vine scrolls, grapes, pomegranates, oryx, wolves, hares, a leopard, pairs of partridges, fish, bulls, ostriches, rabbits, rams, goats, lions and a snake. AtQastal, nearAmman, excavations in 2000 uncovered the earliest known Umayyad mosaics in present-dayJordan, dating probably from the caliphate ofAbd al-Malik ibn Marwan (685–705). They cover much of the floor of a finely decorated building that probably served as the palace of a local governor. The Qastal mosaics depict geometrical patterns, trees, animals, fruits and rosettes. Except for the open courtyard, entrance and staircases, the floors of the entire palace were covered in mosaics.^[27]

Some of the best examples of later Islamic mosaics were produced inMoorishSpain. The golden mosaics in themihrab and the central dome of theGreat Mosque inCorduba have a decidedly Byzantine character. They were made between 965 and 970 by local craftsmen, supervised by a master mosaicist fromConstantinople, who was sent by the Byzantine Emperor to the Umayyad Caliph of Spain. The decoration is composed of colorful floralarabesques and wide bands of Arabcalligraphy. The mosaics were purported to evoke the glamour of the Great Mosque in Damascus, which was lost for the Umayyad family.^[28]

Mosaics generally went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the 8th century. Similar effects were achieved by the use of painted tilework, either geometric with small tiles, sometimes called mosaic, like thezillij ofNorth Africa, or larger tiles painted with parts of a large decorative scheme (Qashani) in Persia, Turkey and further east.

•  
  Complex Mosaic patterns also known asGirih are popular forms of architectural art in manyMuslim cultures.Tomb of Hafez, Shiraz, Iran
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  The Umayyad mosaics ofHisham's Palace closely followed classical traditions
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  Golden mosaics in the dome of theGreat Mosque inCorduba, Moorish Spain (965–970)

Noted 19th-century mosaics include those byEdward Burne-Jones at St Pauls within the Walls inRome.^[29] Another modern mosaic of note is the world's largest mosaic installation located at theCathedral Basilica of St. Louis, located inSt. Louis, Missouri.^[30] A modern example of mosaic is theMuseum of Natural History station of theNew York City Subway (there are many such works of art scattered throughout the New York City subway system, though manyIND stations are usually designed with bland mosaics). Another example of mosaics in ordinary surroundings is the use of locally themed mosaics in some restrooms in therest areas along some Texas interstate highways.

Some modern mosaics are the work ofmodernisme style architectsAntoni Gaudí andJosep Maria Jujol, for example the mosaics in thePark Güell inBarcelona. Today, among the leading figures of the mosaic world areElaine M. Goodwin (UK),Felice Nittolo (Italy),Brit Hammer (Netherlands),Dugald MacInnes (Scotland),Heather Hancock (USA),Kelley Knickerbocker (USA),Aida Valencia (Mexico),Emma Biggs (UK),Helen Nock (UK),Marcelo de Melo (Brazil),Sonia King (USA) andSaimir Strati (Albania).

Mosaics have developed into a popular craft and art, and are not limited to professionals.^[31] Today's artisans and crafters work with stone, ceramics, smalti, shells, art glass, mirror, beads, and even odd items like doll parts, pearls, or photographs. While ancient mosaics tended to be architectural, modern mosaics are found covering everything from park benches and flowerpots to guitars and bicycles. Items can be as small as an earring or as large as a house.

Trencadís or pique assiette (a French term – "stolen from plate") is a mosaic made from pieces of broken pottery, china, glass, buttons, figurines, or jewelry which are cemented onto a base to create a new surface. Almost any form can be used as a base, and any combination of pieces can be applied, restricted only by the individual creator's imagination.

In styles that owe as much to videogame pixel art and pop culture as to traditional mosaic, street art has seen a novel reinvention and expansion of mosaic artwork. The most prominent artist working with mosaics in street art is the FrenchInvader. He has done almost all his work in two very distinct mosaic styles, the first of which are small "traditional" tile mosaics of 8 bit video game character, installed in cities across the globe, and the second of which are a style he refers to as "Rubikcubism", which uses a kind of dual layer mosaic via grids of scrambled Rubik's Cubes. Although he is the most prominent, other street and urban artists do work in Mosaic styles as well.

Portuguese pavement (inPortuguese,Calçada Portuguesa) is a kind of two-tone stone mosaic paving created in Portugal, and common throughout theLusosphere. Most commonly taking the form of geometric patterns from the simple to the complex, it also is used to create complex pictorial mosaics in styles ranging from iconography to classicism and even modern design. In Portuguese-speaking countries, many cities have a large amount of their sidewalks and even, though far more occasionally, streets done in this mosaic form.Lisbon in particular maintains almost all walkways in this style.^[32]

Despite its prevalence and popularity throughout Portugal and its former colonies, and its relation to older art and architectural styles likeAzulejo, Portuguese and Spanish painted tilework, it is a relatively young mosaic artform, its first definitive appearance in a modernly recognizable form being in the mid-1800s. Among the most commonly used stones in this style arebasalt andlimestone.

Mosaic is an art form which uses small pieces of materials placed together to create a unified whole. The materials commonly used are marble or other stone, glass,pottery, mirror or foil-backed glass, or shells.

The wordmosaic is from the Italianmosaico deriving from the Latinmosaicus and ultimately from the Greekmouseios meaningbelonging to theMuses, hence artistic. Each piece of material is atessera (plural:tesserae). The space in between where thegrout goes is an interstice.Andamento is the word used to describe the movement and flow oftesserae. The 'opus', the Latin for 'work', is the way in which the pieces are cut and placed.

Common techniques include:

• Opus regulatum: A grid; all tesserae align both vertically and horizontally.
• Opus tessellatum: Tesserae form vertical or horizontal rows, but not both.
• Opus vermiculatum: One or more lines of tesserae follow the edge of a special shape (letters or a major central graphic).
• Opus musivum: Vermiculatum extends throughout the entire background.
• Opus palladianum: Instead of forming rows, tesserae are irregularly shaped. Also known as "crazy paving".
• Opus sectile: A major shape (e.g. heart, letter, cat) is formed by a single tessera, as later inpietra dura.
• Opus classicum: When vermiculatum is combined with tessellatum or regulatum.
• Opus circumactum: Tesserae are laid in overlapping semicircles or fan shapes.
• Micromosaic: using very small tesserae, inByzantineicons and Italian panels for jewellery from the Renaissance on.

There are three main methods: the direct method, the indirect method and the double indirect method.

The direct method of mosaic construction involves directly placing (gluing) the individualtesserae onto the supporting surface. This method is well suited to surfaces that have a three-dimensional quality, such as vases. This was used for the historic European wall and ceiling mosaics, followingunderdrawings of the main outlines on the wall below, which are often revealed again when the mosaic falls away.

The direct method suits small projects that are transportable. Another advantage of the direct method is that the resulting mosaic is progressively visible, allowing for any adjustments to tile color or placement.

The disadvantage of the direct method is that the artist must work directly at the chosen surface, which is often not practical for long periods of time, especially for large-scale projects. Also, it is difficult to control the evenness of the finished surface. This is of particular importance when creating a functional surface such as a floor or a table top.

A modern version of the direct method, sometimes called "double direct," is to work directly ontofiberglass mesh. The mosaic can then be constructed with the design visible on the surface and transported to its final location. Large work can be done in this way, with the mosaic being cut up for shipping and then reassembled for installation. It enables the artist to work in comfort in a studio rather than at the site of installation.

The indirect method of applying tesserae is often used for very large projects, projects with repetitive elements or for areas needing site specific shapes. Tesserae are applied face-down to a backing paper using a water-soluble adhesive. Once the mosaic is completed in the studio it is transferred in sections to the site and cemented, paper facing outwards. Once fixed the paper is dampened and removed. This method is most useful for extremely large projects as it gives the maker time to rework areas, allows the cementing of the tesserae to the backing panel to be carried out quickly in one operation and helps ensure that the front surfaces of the mosaic tiles and mosaic pieces are flat and in the same plane on the front, even when using tiles and pieces of differing thicknesses. Mosaic murals, benches and tabletops are some of the items usually made using the indirect method, as it results in a smoother and more even surface.^[33]

The best way to arrange variously shaped tiles on a surface leads to the mathematical field oftessellation.^[34]

The artistM. C. Escher was influenced by Moorish mosaics to begin his investigations into tessellation.^[35]

Aphotomosaic is a picture made up of various other pictures (pioneered by Joseph Francis), in which each "pixel" is another picture, when examined closely. This form has been adopted in many modern media and digitalimage searches.^[36]

A tile mosaic is adigital image made up of individualtiles, arranged in a non-overlapping fashion, e.g. to make a static image on a shower room or bathing pool floor, by breaking the image down into square pixels formed from ceramic tiles (a typical size is 1 in × 1 in (25 mm × 25 mm), as for example, on the floor of theUniversity of Toronto pool, though sometimes larger tiles such as 2 in × 2 in (51 mm × 51 mm) are used). These digital images are coarse in resolution and often simply express text, such as the depth of the pool in various places, but some such digital images are used to show a sunset or other beach theme.

Recent developments in digital image processing have led to the ability to design physical tile mosaics usingcomputer aided design (CAD) software. The software typically takes as inputs a sourcebitmap and apalette of colored tiles. The software makes abest-fit match of the tiles to the source image. In order to place tiles in the manner ofopus vermiculatum the first step is to find edges of visually important objects in the image.^[37] APython implementation of a complete pixel image to mosaic vector image algorithm is available.^{[citation needed]}

With high cost of labor in developed countries, productionautomation has become increasingly popular. Rather than being assembled by hand, mosaics designed usingcomputer aided design (CAD) software can be assembled by a robot. Production can be greater than 10 times faster with higher accuracy. But these "computer" mosaics have a different look than hand-made "artisanal" mosaics. With robotic production, colored tiles are loaded intobuffers, and then the robot picks and places tiles individually according to a command file from the design software.^[38]

• Pixel art
• Terrazzo
• Tessellation
• Church of the priest Félix and baptistry of Kélibia
• Mosaic of the Horses of Carthage

• Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913)."Mosaics" .Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
• "Mosaic" .Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 883–890.