Maravi Empire malaŵí (Chichewa)
pre-1450–1860s
The Maravi empire in the 17th century.[a]
Capital	Mankhamba
Common languages	Chichewa[1]: 171
Religion	Chewa traditional religion
Government	Monarchy
Kalonga
• pre-15th century	Chinkhole(first)
• ?	Chidzonzi
• pre–1608-1640s	Muzura
• ?-1860s	Sosola(last)
History
• Adoption of kingship	pre-1450
• Incorporation of Makewana's Pre-Maravi	pre-1450
• Kaphiti and Lundu break away south	pre-1450
• Undi and Nyangu settle inTete Province	post-1450
• Kalonga Muzura conquers Lundu's polity	1622
• Yao chief Mnanula/Pemba kills Kalonga Sosola in battle	1860s
Preceded by Succeeded by Pre-Maravi Yao chiefdoms
Today part of	Malawi Mozambique Zambia

TheMaravi empire was aChewa polity that controlled what is now central and southernMalawi, parts ofMozambique, and easternZambia, from at least the early 15th century to the mid-19th century. In the 17th century, the empire extended westwards to theLuangwa River, northwards toNkhotakota, and southwards to theZambezi, with its influence stretching eastwards toMozambique Island andQuelimane.^[2]: 198

The Chewa migrated fromKatanga in modern-dayDR Congo to Malawi. TheBanda clan and other smaller clans arrived in Malawi first in the 12th or 13th century, and are termed the Pre-Maravi. ThePhiri clan adopted kingship and were led by theKalonga (king), and arrived in Malawi later; they are termed the Maravi. After reachingMsinja, the Maravi integrated the Pre-Maravi's sociopolitical organisation. As the Maravi continued their migration, two relatives of the Kalonga, Kaphiti andLundu, left following a succession dispute to establish their own kingdoms. The Maravi state expanded through the Kalonga sending relatives to found new subordinate polities. After the Maravi settled atMankhamba, another succession dispute causedUndi to leave and establish his own kingdom, accompanied by the royal family and Nyangu. Lundu allied with theZimba, a militaristic group which fought thePortuguese, in the late-16th century. In the 17th century, Kalonga Muzura expanded the empire and conquered Lundu's polity, however failed to expel the Portuguese from the region. In the 18th century, thesystem of succession broke down as a long-term consequence of Nyangu and the royal family's separation from the Kalonga in Mankhamba, leading to internal conflict and disintegration. This was exacerbated in the 19th century by frequent slave raiding fromYao chiefs, culminating in the death of the last Kalonga,Sosola, in battle in the late 1860s. TheChewa Royal Establishment, anon-sovereign monarchy centred in eastern Zambia, claims continuation of Undi's dynasty.

The empire was headed by the Kalonga, with other leaders paying tribute, often in the form of ivory. Titles were governed by the institutions ofpositional succession andperpetual kinship.^[b] VariousChewa religious institutions were utilised to foster unity in the state, such as theMlira ceremony, which involved royal family heads convening on the capital to venerate the spirit of the Kalonga that led the Maravi's migration. The head of the Phiri clan was the mother or sister of the Kalonga, holding the title of Nyangu, from which successors to the kingship had to descend. While the Kalonga held secular authority, theMakewana priestess, as head of the Banda clan and of the Pre-Maravi, held ritual authority. The Makewana was in charge of therainmaking shrine atKaphirintiwa Hill. The economy consisted of botharable andpastoral agriculture. Linkage to both African andIndian Ocean long-distance trade facilitated the export ofcloth and iron tools and import of glass beads and copper.

The nameMaravi is aPortuguese derivation on the wordMalawi, which theChewa had used to refer to themselves.^[3]: 1 In theChewa language,malaŵí means "flames".^[4][5] According toSamuel Josia Ntara'sMbiri ya Achewa (1944/5),^[c]Malawi referred to an area alongLake Malawi where a Chewa king and his people settled long ago.^[3]: 15 Chewa tradition says that Lake Malawi looked like flames or amirage when they first saw it from the highlands. Subsequently, the land betweenLake Malombe and theLinthipe River [de] was calledMalawi, and they referred to themselves asAmalawi.^[9]: 39

The Chewa have two differenttraditions of origin. The first holds thatChiuta (God) created the Chewa and animals atKaphirintiwa Hill, where there are patterns in the rock that resemble human and animal footprints.^[10] Thus, it holds that the Chewa have always inhabited their present homeland.^{[9]: 40–1} The second is in agreement with the most widely accepted models of theBantu expansion, where most Chewa traditions hold that they migrated to modern-day Malawi fromUluwa inKatanga (a region to the northwest).^[d] They are associated withNaviundu [fr] pottery in Katanga dated to the 4th century CE.^{[12]: 22, 32} TheBanda clan and other smaller clans arrived in Malawi first, while thePhiri clan migrated later.^[13] Scholars use the termMaravi to refer to the Phiri, andPre-Maravi to refer to the Banda and others (traditionally calledKalimanjira, "path-finders").^{[14]: 610 [9]: 37–9} Both groups are thought to have left Katanga around the 11th century.^[13]

The Pre-Maravi reached Malawi between the 12th and 14th centuries.^{[e][13][15][1]: 173} According to tradition, they found apygmy people calledAkafula (the local Twa) against whom they fought a battle (nearMankhamba) and drove south across theZambezi River. They are said to have also met agriculturalists, called theKatanga,Pule, orLenda, with archaeological research indicating Malawi was inhabited by agriculturalists from the 3rd century CE. This group likely intermarried with the Chewa and was absorbed. The Pre-Maravi settled atMsinja, below theDzalanyama range [de] and near Kaphirintiwa Hill which—likely following the discovery of the patterns of footprints—became the society's ritual centre with akachisi (rainmaking shrine). Msinja had high-quality soil and lots of water for agriculture. TheMakewana (also calledMangadzi), head of the Banda clan and priestess, held the most authority. Scholars such asJan Vansina have characterised the Pre-Maravi as a state with Makewana as leader. The Makewana appointedMatsano (spirit wives) to hill-top shrines, of which there was a hierarchy, with the Makewana's Kaphirintiwa shrine considered the "mother" of shrines. While these figures specialised in ritual authority, they also held substantial secular authority, although Kamundi (of the Mbewe clan and partner to Makewana) likelyde facto held secular leadership.^{[9]: 43–6} Engagement with theIndian Ocean trade likely began around the 13th century through theLake Malawi–Lake Tanganyika corridor, with the main export being ivory.^[15]

Tradition says that the Maravi stopped at various places in search for a place to settle. One of these was called Choma, which may refer to a river in Zambia flowing intoLake Mweru which the firstKalonga (king) and his people were said to have crossed, a mountain inMzimba District (thought to have a burial site of a Kalonga), ora place in southern Zambia. Clan names are said to have been created there, althoughYusuf Juwayeyi says that given how essential they are to Chewa society this is unlikely. Prior to this settlement, the Maravi are said to have had the same female ritual leadership as the Pre-Maravi. According to tradition, they met an Arab trader named "Hasan Bin Ali" (possibly Sultanal-Hassan ibn Suliman ofKilwa who reigned in the 14th century,^[16]: 227 or representatives of him) who convinced them to have him as their first king.^[11] However, he died before he could be initiated, interpreted asdivine intervention against enthroning a foreigner. Instead,Chinkhole, a local, was appointed the first Kalonga, and religiosity shifted to theveneration of rulers. Chinkhole's mother or sister, Nyangu, was head of the Phiri clan. Possibly due to lack of land for their growing population, the Maravi left Choma. Another stop was Chewa Hill, from which they are said to have derived theirendonym (though scholars have alternative theories on the word's origin). Juwayeyi writes that "it is not possible to figure out from oral traditions how long the Maravi were on the road before they arrived at [their final destination], and neither can it really be confirmed how many Kalongas led them".^{[9]: 38, 48–52}

Tradition continues with the Maravi finally reaching Msinja, where they met the Pre-Maravi, led by the Makewana. As invaders, the Kalonga aimed to destroy the Pre-Maravi's political organisation by attacking the shrine on Kaphirintiwa Hill, but the shrine was difficult to reach and fiercely defended. In his defeat, the Kalonga accepted the Makewana's ritual authority, taking her secular authority, and it was established that the Banda clan would provide the Kalonga's principal wife (titled Mwali). The Pre-Maravi's socio-political organisation was incorporated into the Maravi state. Possibly due to concerns about causing friction with the Pre-Maravi,^[10] the Maravi continued their migration, stopping at Mawere a Nyangu^[f] for a long time. A dispute arose around the practise ofdark magic, and the poisonmwavi was distributed in order to kill the culprit, but many innocent people died. Two relatives of the Kalonga, Kaphiti andLundu, were thought to be the culprits, which caused a dispute between Changamire (the Kalonga's brother) and Kaphiti. Possibly after a succession dispute, Kaphiti and Lundu broke away to the south to establish their own kingdoms. The Kalonga sent Changamire south to expand the state and found new settlements, as he intended to migrate north.^{[17]: 56, 60–1} After their population outgrew the land at Mawere a Nyangu, they finally moved onto Msangu wa Machete, which was near theNadzipulu River (inDedza District) andLake Malawi. According to Ntara'sMbiri ya Achewa, the Banda built their village called Mankhamba and the Phiri built theirs called Malawi.^{[9]: 51–3} Archaeological research indicates that Mankhamba was settled (likely by the Pre-Maravi) between the 12th and 14th centuries, and the Maravi were very likely present there from at least the mid-15th century due to evidence of long-distance trade.^{[13][1]: 173} Juwayeyi considers Mankhamba to have been Kalonga's capital; however,Kings M. Phiri thought it to have beenManthimba. The area southwest of Lake Malawi became the new homeland of the Maravi.^{[9]: 51–3}

The empire was expanded with the Kalonga sending his sons and family members to found new tributary polities and giving them emblems of office (such as an iron stool), as he had done with Changamire to present-dayNtcheu District, whose polity became relatively powerful. Juwayeyi mentionsChidzonzi as the successor of Chinkhole, and says that he led the Maravi out of Choma. K. M. Phiri wrote that Chidzonzi was the Kalonga whenUndi, Kalonga's brother, broke away unilaterally, and was the best-known out of the Kalongas for his founding of various institutions, such as theMlira cult.^{[10][9]: 50} The first Undi's departure was reportedly due to a succession dispute, while other traditions attribute it to his distaste of Mankhamba or a dispute with the new Kalonga around dinner customs (a clash between political seniority and familial seniority). In the succession dispute, Undi had the support of most of the royal family but not the counsellors (new Kalongas had to be of the Phiri clan and descendants of Nyangu, and approved by counsellors). When Undi left, most of the royal family followed, including the Nyangu.^[18] He stopped at Msinja before settling atMano (in modern-dayTete Province, Mozambique). The Nyangu's accompaniment meant Undi could nominate succession candidates. At Mankhamba, Mwali's role became more significant, giving Kalonga's counsellors (who were all Banda) more power. At Mano, Undi expanded his influence towards Msinja, to such levels he could also appoint the Makewana's successors, and his authority reached as far as theLuangwa River in the 17th century.^[19] His forces are said to have conquered the easternNsenga; however, their oral traditions have no memory of this, and it is possible they werevassals.^[g][10] Chulu was either a son of the Kalonga and was sent north or left Undi during his migration, and settled in the southernTumbuka lands ofChimaliro (in modern-dayKasungu District).^[10] By the end of the 17th century, Chulu had declined and been replaced by Mwase, traditionally an elephant hunter who had rid the community of dangerous animals and ended local conflicts.^{[17]: 55, 58–61}

A son of Kalonga, Mkadzula of the Mwale clan, left Mankhamba to settle in theTonga lands (modern-daySalima District) and bore the title Kanyenda.^[10] He was initially accompanied with Kabunduli, who split from Mkadzula atNkhotakota and is said to have united various Tonga groups under his control.^[14]: 623 Traditions on Mkanda Mbewe, possibly another son of Kalonga, differ, likely influenced by interactions with invaders in the 19th century. The first tradition says Mkanda was more important than Undi, saying that Undi walked while Mkanda was carried in a hammock, though other traditions say this was because of an injury. Some traditions say Mkanda was sent toBunda, and later Kasungu. Accordingly, he left after a dispute with Mwase and settled inMchinji after defeatingAkafula warriors, only making contact with Undi after. However, traditions from Undi's area say Mkanda was sent to Mchinji by Undi, only becoming independent later. The Kalonga's power and wealth grew as relatives sent ivory as tribute, which was processed at Mankhamba.^{[17]: 62–4}

The first Kaphiti and first Lundu had settled southwest either nearUtale or theWankurumadzi River (in modern-dayMwanza andNeno districts), coming to rule over the Chipeta (regional proto-Chewa) there.^[10] Kaphiti grew powerful, extending over the LowerShire Valley, theShire Highlands,Mulanje, and areas in modern-day Mozambique. Later, Lundu left to establish his own kingdom further south atMbewe nearChiromo. Supported by the rainmaking cult ofMbona^[h] and controlling the Mbona shrine atNsanje,^{[19][14]: 629} his power grew to eclipse that of Kaphiti (who had disappeared by the 16th century)^[2]: 196 owing to wealth accumulated from trade along theZambezi, and he extended his influence over the Lower Zambezi Valley.^{[17]: 57–8} Lundu allied with theZimba and expanded eastwards intoMakua andLolo lands, and some Makua and Loloheadmen were made tributaries alongside Maravi chiefs. The Zimba went on to defeat the Portuguese in 1592 and 1593.^[18][22][10]

The Maravi engaged in trade both locally and in the widerIndian Ocean trade.Muzura was a Kalonga revered in Portuguese records; his identity has been debated. Undi had the choice of the Kalonga's successors, and, according to Juwayeyi, Muzura was originally part of the royalty at Mano. Portuguese reports say that he led workers on a settler's plantation and was a renowned hunter. He aided the Portuguese in defeating the rivals of theMwenemutapa,Gatsi Rusere, in 1608. Juwayeyi says that Muzura had a second capital in theMwanza–Neno region, closer to the Zambezi, where, in 1616, he provided hospitality to Portuguese traveller Gaspar Bocarro, who wrote the first historical account of Maravi. In 1622, Muzura defeated Lundu with the help of the Portuguese, becoming the undisputed ruler of the region. Under Muzura, trade flourished and the Maravi grew very wealthy. In 1629, Muzura allied with MwenemutapaKapararidze, Gatsi Rusere's successor, aiming to expel the Portuguese from Zambezia. However, Muzura's attack onQuelimane was unsuccessful. Portuguese records in 1635 described Muzura as cunning and very powerful, and he died in the 1640s.^{[2]: 196–203}

The Maravi empire began to decline and fragment in the 18th century as thesystem for succession broke down. The power of the Banda clan had grown since Undi and Nyangu had left Mankhamba, as a candidate for Kalonga required the approval of counsellors belonging to the Banda clan, leaving the Kalonga (belonging to the Phiri clan) relatively isolated. During the 18th century, Undi lost the role of appointing Kalongas as the counsellors assumed that responsibility. Undi's authority was further weakened by the Portuguese working gold deposits north of the Zambezi, who dealt with his lesser chiefs directly.^[18] By the turn of the 19th century, many Chewa,Pimbe, andNsenga had broken away.^[19] AtMankhamba, despite the convenience of appointing Kalongas locally, powerful counsellors manipulated and abused the system. This was compounded by some territorial chiefs' dissatisfaction at not being permitted to sell ivory directly to foreign merchants. As territorial chiefs broke away and the Kalonga lost control over trade, theYao people in what is now northern Mozambique opened new trade routes. Rather than following succession conventions, new Kalongas came to power via armed conflict, and there were many short reigns throughout this time. This included rulers not belonging to the Phiri clan, such as Mchepera of the Mwale clan and Kampini of the Mbewe clan. The Undi is said to have led a force to install his own royal line as Kalonga and depose Mkhwima, and while he was not successful, he continued to press his dynasty's claims.^[10] A deposed Kalonga, Khute, fled to one of the chiefdoms, splitting the state. Makewana is also said to have led revolts against the Kalonga after he raped one of hermatsano, and was supported by Undi.^[10] In the late 18th or early 19th century, Mankhamba was abandoned.^{[23]: 204–6}

From the early 19th century, the Yao led slave raids into the southern region around Lake Malawi, often using guns, which devastated Chewa communities. Slaves were sold toArab orSwahili traders, and some Chewa chiefs engaged in the trade due to how profitable it was. Foreign traders dealt directly with lesser chiefs, empowering them and disrupting the hierarchical system of authority. The 1820s saw a great famine.^[19] Around 1837, theMaseko Ngoni arrived in the region from Mozambique, having fled theMfecane, and also engaged in raiding the Chewa. The Chewa became a series of independent villages, militarily disorganised and often hostile to one another.^{[23]: 206–7} During the Kalonga's decline, the northern polities of Mkanda, Mwase, and Kanyenda became more influential.^[10]

The last Kalonga wasSosola, who was of the Phiri clan and a descendant of Nyangu. With the help of four chiefs—three of which were Yao, with one called Mnanula—he defeated Kalonga Kampini, whose rule was said to be illegitimate as he was not of the Phiri clan, and usurped the title. The Yao chiefs began raiding the Maravi, which Sosola lacked the military capacity to prevent. Instead he made diplomatic efforts, but the Ngoni refused to help him. He turned to a Yao group led by Msamala and his son Mponda, who accepted his request and defeated the group led by Mnanula. However, they too began slave raiding, forcing Sosola to leave and settle near Mankhamba and Mnanula's settlement. Towards the end of the 1860s, a war broke out between Sosola and Mnanula, reportedly resulting in Mnanula shooting and killing Sosola, afterwards changing his name to Pemba in triumph.^[i] This saw the end of the position of Kalonga. In 1864, a blind and old Lundu was killed by someMakololo chiefs who had accompaniedDavid Livingstone on hisZambezi expedition.^[24] Two decades later, the region was colonised by theBritish, and the slave trade ended by the turn of the 20th century.^{[23]: 207–11}

TheChewa Royal Establishment (or Chewa Kingdom),^[25] anon-sovereign monarchy seated inKatete in eastern Zambia and extending into Malawi and Mozambique, claims continuation of Undi's lineage and the Kalonga institution.^{[26]: 5–10} The annualKulamba festival, held in the last week of August, involves chiefs from Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique convening at the paramount chief's palace to report to the Kalonga and defy colonial borders.^{[27][28]: xvi} Lundu's lineage also continues into modern times; from being avillage headman in 1922, the Lundu was reinstated as the maintraditional authority in the lowerShire Valley followingMalawi's independence in 1964.^[29]

The state was headed by theKalonga (king/paramount chief) of thePhiri clan. Titles were governed by the institutions ofpositional succession andperpetual kinship, which permanently linked political offices together in a network inspired by kinship systems. Originating in theLunda Empire, positional succession is where the successor to a title takes on their predecessor's name, identity, and duties, while, as a consequence, perpetual kinship is where the successor inherits their predecessor's kinship relations.^{[30][31]: 6–7} The latter meant that even chiefs of non-Chewa groups such as theNsenga were regarded as (originally honorary) sons or nephews of Maravi leaders.^[14]: 621 Perpetual titles includedNyangu (reserved for either the Kalonga's mother or sister) andMwali (Kalonga'sprincipal wife, chosen from theBanda clan and descended from Makewana).^[j][11] As amatrilocal society, the Phiri clan was headed by Nyangu, who held the highest rank in the system, serving to check Kalonga's power.Makewana (orMangadzi) was a priestess and rainmaker who was head of the Banda clan.^{[9]: 38, 51–2} Successors to the Kalonga had to be descendants of Nyangu, belong to the Phiri clan, and be approved by counsellors at Mankhamba who belonged to the Banda clan.^[23]: 204 Some other clans included the Mwale, Linde, Kwenda, Mbewe, and Mphadwe.^[11] Thetotem of the Phiri/Maravi was thebaboon.^[6]

The state had regional chiefs calledMwini Dziko ("owner of the land"), and Kalonga gave some of the first chiefs aflywhisk, a sword or knife, and an ironstool as symbols of office. TheMwini Dziko delegated control to various sub-chiefs, who paid tribute to Kalonga, often in the form of ivory.^{[32][17]: 55} The Kalonga consulted theMwini Dziko, who in turn consulted court attendants or guardians (ankhoswe) and territorial chieftains (aphungu ormbili), who consulted lineage or village chiefs, who then consulted the people. PhilosopherGrivas Kayange argues that this was a form ofdeliberative andagonistic democracy. Consensus was highly valued, as demonstrated by various proverbs,^[k] although people that were not members of theNyau society were left out.^[11] The army was led by the Khombe, head of the Mwale clan.^{[10][17]: 62} The Mkomba was the public executioner, and the Mgawi the land divider.^[14]: 617

The Maravi practised bothpastoral andarable farming. They possibly grewsorghum,millet, beans, groundnuts, anddagga. Later,cassava,sweet potatoes,tobacco, andpumpkins were introduced via trade with the Portuguese.Cotton became popular to grow, with varieties including the indigenousthonje kaja and the foreignthonje manga. Animals raised for food includedchickenscattle,goats,sheep,pigs anddoves. Chickens were often used as amedium of exchange prior to the popularisation of money under colonial rule.^[33] Hunting was done in large groups utilisingulembe poison, withantelope a popular target. Fishing was also a common livelihood.^{[1]: 179–83}

Mankhamba specialised inmetallurgy, and the Maravi were well-known to groups including the Portuguese for their high-quality iron tools. Other than use for agriculture, iron tools were also used in manufacturing objects such as mats, mortars, pestles, drums, baskets, and canoes, according to Juwayeyi.Copper working was less common due to the lack of accessible copper deposits in the area. Other trades were house construction and the production ofwicker objects, pottery, and cloth. Cloth included a type calleddewere, made frombwazi;barkcloth made ofmombo bark; and cotton cloth, which gradually replaced the others. There were two types of wicker ware:nkeka, made frommgwalangwa, andmphasa, made frombango. Pottery was commonly produced, and ceramic pots likely by women only. Ivory was also processed at Mankhamba.^{[1]: 175–8}

The Maravi traded locally as well as engaging in theIndian Ocean trade. Glass beads from Europe and Asia were a popular import, with Indian ones being favoured over European ones. Copper objects were imported from modern-day Zambia and DR Congo, and copper was used as a medium of exchange. Due to the Maravi originating from the copper-rich area ofKatanga, they were likely familiar with copper workings.Chinese porcelain dating to the 16th century has been uncovered at Mankhamba. The Maravi exported iron tools, especially to the Portuguese, and cotton cloth calledmachila,^[10] which was cheaper and often preferred to Indian cloth due to its durability. Salt fromLake Malawi was also traded to the interior. There were plenty of elephants in the area, and ivory was a popular trade good.^{[2]: 186–93} Firearms imported in the 19th century contributed to a rapid growth in elephant hunting.^[34]

The Maravi utilisedChewa religious institutions to maintain the state's unity.^[35]: 10 While the Phiri clan held secular authority, the Banda clan was in charge of religious matters and held ritual authority, and were relied upon for the society's prosperity. Their head, priestessMakewana, was supported byMatsano (spirit wives) and members of the Mbewe clan. TheMlira ceremony involved the heads of ruling families visiting the capital every year, around September, to venerate the spirit of the Kalonga who had led the Maravi's migration, which took the physical form of a snake.^{[10][14]: 618} The shrine atKaphirintiwa Hill (which was dedicated to the godChisumphi) had a sacred pool. Makewana, according to tradition, would disappear into it for days when calling for rain. The shrine also had a sacred drum (mbiriwiri) said to have been left by theAkafula when they were displaced. OnlyTsang'oma ("Drum beater") of the Mwale clan was permitted to beat the drum, and drum playing was forbidden inMsinja.^[l] Hill-top shrines were largely inaccessible and may have been a place of refuge from invaders.^{[36][9]: 38, 45–6, 51}Mankhamba also had its own shrine (still in use) and sacred water pool, the latter of which was located 8 km (5 miles) away.^[1]: 175 Kamundi was a senior member of the Mbewe clan who, in rituals, fulfilled the role ofThunga (a snake deity). Twoinitiation rites wereChinamwali, which prepared women for motherhood, andNyau, which prepared men for challenges in later life.^[10]

Similar to wicker ware uses in recent times,mphasa was possibly used to cover the dead, andnkeka by women as seats for socialising. Likewise, the two types of baskets,dengu/mtanga andlichero, were possibly primarily used by women, and the deepest basket,mseche, used to store beer for celebrations and other village events. It was very common to smokedagga and latertobacco, and smoking pipes were often decorated. Cattle were viewed as symbols of wealth and status. Women prepared plant foods while men prepared meats. Dogs were raised for hunting and companionship, and hunters provided sacrifices and carriedcharms andmedicines for good luck and safety. Jewellery uncovered by archaeological research includes glass beads, copper rings, copper necklaces, and ivorybangles.^{[1]: 177–8, 180, 182}

The following is alist of rulers from 1988 according toKings M. Phiri, a Malawian historian who researched the Maravi.^[37] He lamented the unsuitability of generational averaging in this case due to ambiguity surrounding the succession system.^[m] After the early 18th century, there is great variation in traditions.^[10]

TheChewa Royal Establishment, anon-sovereign monarchy centred in eastern Zambia, claims continuation of Undi's lineage and the Kalonga institution. Its ruler list has Chidzonzi succeeded by Muzura, who, according to tradition, usurped the title and caused the first Undi to leave. After a series of short and unstable reigns, the first Undi is said to have taken the title after Sosola's death. Fourteen Kalonga Gawa Undis follow, with the holder as of 2016 beingKalonga Gawa Undi Mkhomo V.^{[40][41]: 7}

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