 Mangaloreans partaking in the occasion ofMonti Fest atPoona (Pune). | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
|---|---|
| Diocese of Mangalore | 360,000[1] |
| Diocese of Udupi | 106,000 (approx) |
| Languages | |
| Konkani,Tulu,Kanarese,Hindi-Urdu,Indian English &Bombay Mahratti. Previously:Goan Portuguese. | |
| Religion | |
| Latin Church in India | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Kudali Catholics,Goan Catholics,Karwari Catholics,Bombay East Indian Catholics,Damanese Catholics,Mangalorean Protestants,Latin Catholics of Malabar,Koli Christians,Kunbis,Gaodi Christians,Christian Brahmins,Christian Cxatrias,Daivadnyas,Vaishya Vanis,Anglo-Indians &Luso-Indians | |
Mangalorean Catholics (Konkani:Kōdiyālcheñ Kathōlikā) are anethno-religious community ofLatin Christians from theDiocese of Mangalore and the erstwhileSouth Canara area; by the southern coast of present-dayKarnataka, India.[2][3]
Contemporary Mangalorean Catholics descend mainly from theNew Christians ofPortuguese Goa, who migrated to theKeladi Kingdom 1560-1763,[4][5] throughout the courses of theGoan Inquisition, thePortuguese–Adil Shahi Wars & theMahratta Invasions of Goa and Bombay.[6][7][8] They learnedTulu andKanarese whilst inCanara, but retained theKonkani language and preserved much of theirKonkani way of life, which had undergoneChristianisation in Goa. The "Canara Christians" suffered a15-year-long captivity atSeringapatam, that was imposed byTippu Sultan.[9] Following Tippu's defeat and death at theSiege of Seringapatam (1799) by theEnglish East India Company, theNizam of Hyderabad & other allies; most of them resettled in and around South Canara; also in areas such asChikmagalur (Chickmangalore) &Coorg (Kodagu) during theCompany rule in India. A lesser number was shipped to theSeven Islands of Bombay & theBombay metropolitan area in the northernKonkan region.
Historically, an agrarian community,[10][11] there were migrations of the working and educated class in the early 20th century, to bigger cities such as theBombay (Mumbai),Poona (Pune) &Bangalore (Bengaluru). Later, more migrations led to the formation of aMangalorean diaspora in thePersian Gulf countries and theAnglosphere;[11] thus the younger generation outside of historical locales of South Canara, is mostly an English-speakingAnglo-Americanised sub-culture. Also, intermarriages with non-Mangaloreans has caused a decline in "Mangalore stores" and the culture ofMangalorean Catholic cuisine.[12]
The community gets its name from theMamgalore diocesan adherents of theLatin Church in India,[2] located by the southwesterncoast of India. Most of their hometowns lie in present day civil districts ofDakshina Kannada andUdupi districts in Karnataka state andKassergode in the present-day Kerala state. This area was collectively referred to as South Canara inBritish India, and then from thepartition until thereorganisation (1956) of thestates and territories of India.[1]
In 1526,Portuguese in Goa and Bombay arrived inMangalore, and the number of local converts toChristianity slowly increased. However, a sizeable Christian population did not exist there until the second half of the 16th century, when there was a large-scale immigration of Christians fromGoa to South Canara. They were reluctant to learn the local languages of South Canara[13] and continued to speakKonkani, so that local Christians (Padvals) had to learn Konkani to converse with them.[13] After this migration, these skilled agriculturists were offered various land grants by the nativeBednore rulers ofSouth Canara.[13] They observed their Eastern culturalHindu customs in conjunction with the newfoundWestern Catholic faith, and preserved their much of their Konkani lifestyle.[14]
Most migrants were people from the lower economic strata who had been left out of government and economic jobs; their lands had been confiscated due to heavy taxation under the Portuguese in Goa. As a consequence of the wealth and privileges which these migrants enjoyed in Mangalore, they began feeling superior to their landless kindred in Goa. Theircaptivity at Seringapatam (1784–1799), where many died, were killed, or were converted toSunni Islam, led to the formation of a separate and common cultural identity among members of the group, who had previously considered themselves an extension of Goans. They no longer self-identified as Goan Catholics after the captivity.[15] Alan Machado Prabhu estimates that almost 95 per cent of Mangalorean Catholics have origins in Goa.[16]
All records of an early existence of Christians in South Canara were lost at the time of their deportation byTipu Sultan in 1784. Hence, it is not known exactly whenChristianity was introduced inSouth Canara, although it is possible thatSyrian Christians settled inSouth Canara, just as they did inKerala, a state just south of Canara.[17] TheItalian travellerMarco Polo recorded that there were considerable trading activities between theRed Sea and the Canara coast in the 13th century. It can be surmised that foreign Christian merchants were visiting the coastal towns of South Canara during that period for commerce; it is possible some Christian priests might have accompanied them for evangelistic work.[18]
In April 1321 the FrenchDominican friarJordanus Catalani of Severac (in south-westernFrance) landed atThana with four other friars.[19] He then travelled toBhatkal inNorth Canara, a port town on the coastal route from Thana toQuilon.[20][21] Being the first bishop ofIndia and theQuilon Diocese, he was entrusted the spiritual nourishment of Christian community inMangalore and other parts ofIndia byPope John XXII.[22] According to historian Severine Silva, no concrete evidence has yet been found that there were any permanent settlements of Christians in South Canara before the 16th century. It was only after the advent of the Portuguese in the region that Christianity began to spread.[18]
In 1498 the Portuguese explorerVasco da Gama landed on a group of islands in South Canara on his voyage from Portugal to India. He named the islandsEl Padron de Santa Maria; they later came to be known asSt Mary's Islands.[23] In 1500, Portuguese explorerPedro Álvares Cabral arrived atAnjediva in North Canara with eight Franciscan missionaries. Under the leadership of Frei Henrique Soares de Coimbra, the missionaries converted 22 or 23 natives toChristianity in theMangalore region.[21] During the early part of the 16th century,Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529), the ruler of theVijayanagara Empire ofDeccan, granted commercial privileges to the Portuguese on the Canara coast. There was complete freedom of worship, belief, and propagation of religious tenets in the Vijaynagara Empire.[18] In 1526, under the viceroyship ofLopo Vaz de Sampaio, the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore.[24]
The Portuguese Franciscans slowly started propagating Christianity in Mangalore.[24] The most prominent local convert was the Brahminmahant Shankarayya, who in 1751 travelled with his wife fromKallianpur to Goa and was baptised, with the Portuguese viceroy assuming the role of his godfather. The honouredmahant took the name of Francisco de Távora, after the ViceroyMarques de Távora.[25][26] Their properties were subsequently taken over by their Hindu relatives, but the viceroy instructed his factor of Mangalore to get their property restored.[26][27] In 1534, Canara was placed under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Bishop of Goa, where the Portuguese had a strong presence. Missionaries soon arrived and gained converts. The number of local converts in South Canara continually increased until 1546.[17] During the mid-16th century, the Portuguese faced resistance fromAbbakka Rani ofUllal, the Queen of the Bednore dynasty. This put a halt to conversions. The first battle between Abbakka Rani and the Portuguese was fought in 1546; she emerged victorious and drove the Portuguese out of South Canara.[28]
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In 1510, a Portuguese fleet underAfonso de Albuquerque, sent byKing Manuel I of Portugal,wrested the region of Goa fromSultanYusuf Adil Shah ofBijapur.[29] In 1534, theDiocese of Goa was established. Soon missionaries were sent to Goa, which led to conversion of a sizeable population toRoman Catholicism.[30] The bulk of Christian settlers came in three major migration waves towards South Canara. These migrations occurred in periods of great unrest: theGoa Inquisition occurred from 1560 onwards; thePortuguese–Adil Shahi wars were between 1570 and 1579; and the Portuguese–Maratha wars occurred between 1667–83 and 1737–40.[31] Other factors that led to mass migrations were disease epidemics, famines, natural calamities, overpopulation, poor living conditions, heavy tax burdens, and social discrimination by the Portuguese.[32]
In 1542, theNavarrese Jesuit Francis Xavier, co-founder of the Society of Jesus; arrived in Goa.[33] He discovered that the newly converted Christians were practising their old Hindu customs and traditions. He requested the Portuguese kingJoão III to install anInquisition in Goa in 1545.[34] Many of the Goan ancestors of the present Mangalorean Catholics fled Goa after the Inquisition began in 1560.King Sebastião I decreed that every trace of Hindu customs should be eradicated through the Inquisition. Many Goan Christians of upper-caste Hindu origins were attached to their caste practices, and did not want to abandon them.[35] Those converts who refused to comply were forced to leave Goa and to settle outside the Portuguese dominion,[17] which resulted in the first major wave of migrations towards South Canara.[36]
The Christians who left Goa were for the most part skilled agriculturists who abandoned their irrigated fields in Goa to achieve freedom.[37] The remainder were skilled carpenters, goldsmiths, artisans, and merchants.[38] At the time of migration, Canara was ruled by theKeladi kingShivappa Nayaka (1540–60). He evinced great interest in the development of agriculture in his empire and welcomed these agriculturists to his kingdom, giving them fertile lands to cultivate.[37] They were recruited into the armies of the Bednore dynasty.[39][a] This was confirmed byFrancis Buchanan, a Scottish physician, when he visited Canara in 1801. In his bookA Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar (1807), he stated that "The princes of the house of Ikkeri had given great encouragement to the Christians, and had induced 80,000 of them to settle inTuluva."[40][41] Later, this was identified as a probable mistake and should have read "8,000". This figure included the second emigration of Christians from Goa.[37] The taxation policies of the Keladi Nayakas during 1598–1763 enabled the Goan Catholic migrants to emerge as prominent landowning gentry in South Canara.[citation needed] These migrants usually brought their own capital from Goa, which they invested in their new lands, thereby indirectly contributing to the prosperity of the Keladi kingdom.[38]
Under the provisional treaties between the Portuguese and the Bednore rulers, and thePadroado, the Christians were allowed to build churches and help foster the growth of Christianity in South Canara.[39] The arrival of the British and theDutch halted the activity of the Portuguese, and they were gradually unable to send the required number of missionaries to Mangalore.[42] Shivappa Nayaka had previously expelled the Portuguese from their forts a little before 1660, which brought about considerable changes in the ecclesiastical situation.[43] The appointment of theVicar Apostolic of Mangalore was felt by theHoly See to be of critical importance. Nayaka pressured the church authorities to appoint a native priest as the Vicar Apostolic, which resulted in the appointment of Fr. Andrew Gomez to the post; however, he died before the nomination papers could reachMangalore.[44]
At the recommendation of theVicar General ofVerapoly, Mons. Joseph Sebastiani, PopeClement X appointedBishop Thomas de Castro, a GoanTheatine and Bishop of Fulsivelem, as the Vicar Apostolic ofPropaganda Fide in theVicariate of Canara on 30 August 1675, for the purpose of providing spiritual leadership to the Canara Christians.[44][45] After his consecration, he first went toCalicut and then moved to Mangalore, where he served from 1677 to 1684.[46] In 1677, Bishop de Castro entered into a conflict with the Archbishop of Goa, Dom FreiAntónio Brandão [pt] for disregarding the Padroado. Consequently, they did not cede the jurisdiction to him despite the Pope's letter of appointment.[47] The Padroado–Propaganda conflict which ensued divided the Catholics of Canara into two sides—those who recognised the authority of the Padroado Archbishop in Goa versus those who supported de Castro.[45]
The Portuguese refused to recognise Bishop de Castro's appointment and vigorously opposed his activities. Archbishop Brandão's sudden death on 6 July 1678 further complicated matters, and theCathedral chapter administering theArchdiocese of Goa following the vacancy created by his death, forbade the Canara Catholics from receiving the sacraments from the bishop or from priests appointed by him. In his turn, Bishop de Castro excommunicated those Catholics who were obedient to the Padroado authorities in Goa and their priests.[45] In 1681, the Holy See appointed another Goan priestFr. Joseph Vaz, as theVicar Forane of Canara; he was asked not to submit to Bishop de Castro unless he showed the letter of appointment.[47] However, after being convinced of its legitimacy, Fr. Vaz submitted to Bishop de Castro and brought about a truce. He further managed to persuade the bishop to delegate his jurisdiction to him while retaining the post.[48] In 1700, the Catholics of Canara were again brought under the jurisdiction of the Padroado Archbishop of Goa.[49]
TheMilagres Church, one of the oldest churches in South Canara, was built in 1680 by Bishop Thomas de Castro.[42][50][51] In 1568, the Church ofNossa Senhora do Rosário de Mangalore (Our Lady of Rosary of Mangalore) was erected by the Portuguese atBolar in Mangalore. The Churches ofNossa Senhora de Mercês de Velala (Our Lady of Mercy ofUllal) andSão Francisco de Assis (St. Francis of Assisi) at Farangipet were erected by the Portuguese in South Canara at around the same time. These three churches were mentioned by the Italian travellerPietro Della Valle, who visited Mangalore in 1623.[52]
In 1570, theSultan ofBijapur,Ali Adil Shah I, entered into an alliance with theSultan ofAhmadnagar, Murtaza Nizam Shah, and theZamorin ofCalicut for a simultaneous attack on the Portuguese territories of Goa,Chaul, and Mangalore.[31] Heattacked Goa in 1571 and ended Portuguese influence in the region. The BijapurSultans were especially renowned for their loathing of Christianity.[53] Fearing persecution, many Goan Catholics fled to South Canara during this second wave of migrations, and settled inBarcoor,Kallianpur,Cundapore, andBasroor.[31][53] For the next century, there was continual migration of Goan Catholics southwards, so that by 1650, a considerable number of Catholics were settled around Mangalore,Moolki,Shirva, Pezar,Bantval, Cundapore, Kallianpur, and Kirem.[31] The Christian Goud Saraswat Brahmins who came during this wave belonged mostly to theShenvi subcaste.[37]
Theattacks of the Maratha Empire on Goa during the mid-17th century precipitated the third major wave of migrations. In 1664Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha empire, attackedKudal, a town north of Goa, and began his campaign for Goa. After Shivaji's death on 3 April 1680, his sonSambhaji ascended to the throne.[53] The onslaught of Sambhaji along the northern territories of Goa drove nearly all the Christians from their homelands, and most of them migrated to South Canara. Migration increased with the fall of the Portuguese "Province of the North" (which includedBassein,Chaul andSalsette) and a direct threat to the very existence of Goa in 1738–40.[48]
According to one estimate, emigrations from theSalcete district of Goa were around the rate of 2,000 annually. Jesuit priests estimated that 12,000 Christians emigrated from theBardez district of Goa between 1710 and 1712, most of them going southward. A Goa government report of 1747 presently in thePanjim archives records that around 5,000 Christians fled from the Bardez andTiswadi districts of Goa during the Maratha invasion.[54] During the Maratha raids on Goa, about 60,000 Christians migrated to South Canara.[55] These new migrants were given lands atShirva, Kirem,Mundkur, Pezar, andHosabettu by theChowta kings ofMoodbidri and at Milagres, Bondel, and Cordel by the Banghel kings of Mangalore.[48]During later years, migration slowed because of the Maratha–Mughal wars, and some 10,000 Christians returned to Goa.[53] According to Alan Machado Prabhu, Mangalorean Catholics numbered about 58,000 by 1765.[56]
Subsequent to this steady rise in South Canara's Catholic population, the Portuguese took advantage of every opportunity to extend their control over the Mangalorean Catholics, who came to be identified with Portuguese interests.[57]The Portuguese sought to expand the power of the priests, as from the beginning of their empire, priests had accompanied Portuguese delegations on diplomatic missions and on occasion were the principal negotiators. Treaties they signed with the Keladi Nayakas progressively incorporated clauses which increased the authority of the priests over the local Catholic population, making them obedient to the priests in matters of Christian laws as well as granting priests the authority to punish violations.[57] The Portuguese promised to refrain from slaughtering cows and to halt forcible conversions in theirfactories.[57] The terms of these treaties were not always honoured by the Portuguese, with the result that whenever hostilities broke out between the Keladis and the Portuguese, the Catholic settlers were often harassed or arrested by the Nayakas.[58]
In 1686,Seringapatam, the capital of theKingdom of Mysore, had a community of more than 400 Catholics. The community was severely harassed in the following two decades, with the churches destroyed and the priest's house confiscated. The destruction was undertaken under the name of theWodeyar king,Kanthirava Narasaraja I, by his finance minister. The priest's house was returned to the church in 1709.[59] Relations between the Wodeyars and the Mangalorean Catholics improved until 1717, when there was an anti-Christian outburst. The resident priest was expelled and forbidden to preach. Several more anti-Christian outbursts followed. By 1736, there were better relations between the two groups.[60]
From 1761 onwards,Hyder Ali, a distinguished soldier in the Mysore army, tookde facto control of the throne of the Kingdom of Mysore through the Wodeyar dynasty. Hyder occupied Mangalore in 1763.[61] The Mangalorean Catholics numbered 80,000 in 1767.[62] In February 1768 the British captured Mangalore from Hyder.[61] Toward the end of 1768, Hyder and his son Tipu Sultan defeated the British and recaptured Mangalore fort. After the conquest, Hyder was informed that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest of Mangalore. Hyder believed that this behaviour of the Christians amounted to treachery against the sovereign.[63]
The Christians were alleged to have helped General Mathews with a sum of Rs. 3,30,000/-.[64] Hyder summoned a Portuguese officer and several Christian priests from Mangalore to suggest the punishment for the Mangalorean Catholics for treachery. The Portuguese officer suggested the death penalty for those Catholics who helped the British, because it was a fitting punishment for people who betrayed the sovereign. But Hyder exhibited a diplomatic stance and imprisoned the Christians, rather than killing them.[65]
Later, he opened negotiations with the Portuguese. As a result of the agreement, the suspicion against the clergy and the Christians was removed.[66] During Hyder's regime, the Mangalorean Catholic community continued to flourish.[67] After Hyder's death in theSecond Anglo-Mysore War on 7 December 1782, the British captured the fort again. Hyder was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan.[68] Tipu laid several assaults on the Mangalore fort until January 1784, all of which resulted in failure. The fort was finally delivered to Tipu whenthe British capitulated on 30 January 1784.[69]
Tipu received highly exaggerated reports about the role of the Mangalorean Catholics and their help to the British in the Second Anglo-Mysore War.[70] To minimise the British threat to his kingdom and in theSultan-ul-Tawarikh, due to "the rage of Islam that began to boil in his breast",[71] Tipu banished the Mangalorean Catholic community from their lands, and imprisoned them at Seringapatam, the capital of his empire.[72] The captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam, which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.[73]
Soon after theTreaty of Mangalore in 1784, Tipu gained control of Canara.[74] He issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates,[75] and deport them to Seringapatam, through the Jamalabad fort route.[42] All this was accomplished in a secret and well-planned move onAsh Wednesday (24 February 1784).[76] Accounts of the number of captives differ, ranging from 30,000 to 80,000.[77] The generally accepted figure is 60,000, as per Tipu's own records.[78] They were forced to climb nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) through the dense jungles and gorges of theWestern Ghat mountain ranges along two routes; one group travelled along theBantwal-Belthangadi-Kulshekar-Virajpet-Coorg-Mysore route,[15][79][80] and the other along theGersoppa falls (Shimoga) route.[81] It was 200 miles (320 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam, and the journey took six weeks.[82]
According to theBarcoor Manuscript, written inKannada by a Mangalorean Catholic fromBarcoor after his return from Seringapatam, 20,000 of them (one-third) died on the march to Seringapatam due to hunger, disease, and ill treatment by the soldiers.[83] At the camp at Jamalabad fort, Mangalorean Catholic leaders were thrown down from the fort.[80] All Christian churches in South Canara, except theHospet Church at Hospet and theMonte Mariano Church at Farangipet,[84] were razed to the ground and all land owned by the captured Christians was taken over by Tipu and distributed among his favourites.[85] After they were freed, all their belongings had disappeared and their deserted lands were being cultivated by theBunts.[85]
After arriving at Seringapatam, the Christian captives were made to forcibly embrace Islam, were tortured, or sentenced to death.[86] The young men who refused to embrace Islam were disfigured by cutting their noses, upper lips, and ears. They were seated on asses, paraded through the city, and thrown into the dungeons of Seringapatam.[87] Historian Praxy Fernandes, author ofStorm over Seringapatam: The Incredible Story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan, states that contrary to popular belief, 40,000 Christians were not kept manacled in the dungeons of Seringapatam.[88]
Ludwig von Pastor, a German historian, claimed "countless" Mangalorean Catholics were hanged, including women with their children clinging around their necks. Others were trampled or dragged by elephants.[89] The able-bodied young men were drafted into the army after being circumcised and converted to Islam.[90] The young women and girls were distributed as wives to Muslim officers and favourites living in Seringapatam.[83] According to Mr. Silva ofGangollim, a survivor of the captivity, if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found, Tipu had ordered the cutting off of the ears, nose, the feet, and one hand as punishment.[91] The persecutions continued until 1792.[89] This was followed by a brief relaxation period from 1792 to 1797, during which a few Catholic families managed to escape to Coorg,Cannanore, andTellicherry.[92] The persecutions resumed in 1797.[93]
In theBattle of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799, the British army, under officersGeorge Harris,David Baird, andArthur Wellesley,stormed the fortress and breached the town of Seringapatam, with Tipu being killed in action.[94] After his death in theFourth Anglo-Mysore War, the Mangalorean Catholics were freed from his captivity.[95] Of the 60,000–80,000 Mangalorean Catholics taken captive, only 15,000–20,000 made it out as Christians.[96]
Historian Alan Machado Prabhu mentions that only 11,000 survived the captivity as Christians.[53] British general Arthur Wellesley helped 10,000 of them return to South Canara and resettle on their lands.[94][97] Of the remaining Christians freed, about a thousand went toMalabar, and some hundreds settled in Coorg.[98] According toFrancis Buchanan, 15,000 of them returned to Mangalore and its vicinity, while 10,000 of them migrated to Malabar.[41] TheGazetteer of the Bombay Presidency (1883) mentions that 15,000 persons returned, of which 12,000 were from South Canara and 3,000 fromNorth Canara.[99] According to genealogistMichael Lobo, the present Mangalorean Catholic community is descended almost entirely from this small group of survivors.[100]
Later, the British took over South Canara. In 1800, they took a census of the region. Of the 396,672 people living in South Canara,[101] 10,877 were Christians.[102] Thomas Munro was appointed the firstcollector of Canara in June 1799.[103] He passed three orders in respect of the estates of the Christians, which were taken over by non-Christians during the captivity.[104] Through the assistance of the church and with the support of Munro, the Christians were able to recover their lands and estates.[105] Fr. José Miguel Luis de Mendes, a Goan Catholic priest, was appointed Vicar of Our Lady of Rosary of Mangalore on 7 December 1799. He took interest in the re-establishment of the community from 1799 to 1808.[106] Later, British general John Goldsborough Ravenshaw was appointed collector ofSouth Canara. He took an active part in the restoration of the Catholic community's former possessions and the recovery of its estates. He constructed a church for them, which was completed in 1806.[107]
In 1800, there were 2,545 Catholic households with a population of 10,877.[108] Their population almost doubled by 1818. According to various parish books, Mangalorean Catholics numbered 19,068 in South Canara (12,877 in Mangalore andBantval,[109] 3,918 inMoolki, 2,273 inCundapore andBarcoor).[110] Most of the churches which were earlier destroyed by Tipu were rebuilt[111] by 1815.[112] The community prospered under the British, and the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa recommenced.[106]
The opening of the Protestant GermanBasel Mission of 1834 in Mangalore brought many handicraft industries, such as cotton weaving and tile-manufacturing, to the region and led to a large-scale rise in employment.[113][114] In 1836–37, the political situation inPortugal was inturmoil. Antonio Feliciano de Santa Rita Carvalho, a Portuguese priest, was appointed Archbishop-elect of Goa in September 1836 without authorisation from the then Pope,Gregory XVI.[115] Many Mangalorean Catholics did not accept the leadership of Carvalho but instead submitted to theVicar Apostolic ofVerapoly inTravancore, while some of them continued to be under the jurisdiction of theRoman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman. The parishes in South Canara were divided into two groups—one under Goa and the other under Verapoly.[42]
Under the leadership of Joachim Pius Noronha, a Mangalorean Catholic priest, and John Joseph Saldanha, a Mangalorean Catholic judge, the Mangalorean Catholics sent a petition to the Holy See in 1840 to establish Mangalore as a separate Vicariate.[116] Conceding to their request,Pope Gregory XVI established Mangalore as a separate Vicariate on 17 February 1845 under the VerapolyCarmelites. The Mangalore Mission was transferred to the French Carmelites by a bull dated 3 January 1870.[117] During the regime of Carmelites, the Mangalorean Catholics constantly sent memorandums to the Holy See to send Jesuits to Mangalore to start institutions for higher education, since students frequently had to go to Bombay and Madras for educational purposes.[118]Pope Leo XIII, by the Brief of 27 September 1878, handed over the Mangalore mission to the Italian Jesuits ofNaples, who reached Mangalore on 31 December 1878.[42][119][120]
The Italian Jesuits played an important role in education, health, and social welfare of the community.[121] They builtSt. Aloysius College in 1880,[122]St Aloysius Chapel in 1884,[123]St. Joseph's Seminary[124]and many other institutions and churches. On 25 January 1887,Pope Leo XIII established theDiocese of Mangalore, which is considered to be an important landmark in the community's history.[citation needed] By the later half of the 19th century, many Mangalorean Catholics were involved in theMangalore tile industry, coffee plantations, and trade in plantation products.[35] They prospered under the British and competed with the local Brahmins for offices in the service of the British.[125] The overwhelming majority of Mangalorean Catholics continued to remain agriculturists.[126]
During the later 19th century, they started migrating to other urban areas, especiallyBombay,[citation needed]Bangalore,[citation needed]Calcutta,Karachi,Madras,Mysore andPoona. The Mangalorean Catholics came to Bombay out of economic necessity.[127] The first permanent settlement of Mangalorean Catholics in Bombay was recorded in the 1890s.[128] The first Mangalorean Catholic settlement in Madras was recorded in the 1940s.[129]Joachim Alva, a Mangalorean Catholic politician, actively participated in uniting the Mangalorean Catholic community against the British during theIndian Independence Movement.[130]
In 1901, Mangalorean Catholics accounted for 76,000 of the total 84,103 Christians in South Canara.,[131][132] while in 1962, they numbered 186,741.[133] During the mid-20th century,Victor Fernandes, Bishop of Mangalore from 1931 to 1955, erected a largecross atNanthoor, nearPadav hills, on the former outskirts of Mangalore, in honour of the memory of Mangalorean Catholic martyrs who died on the march and during their 15-year captivity at Seringapatam.[15] During the 1970s, coastal communication increased between Bombay and Mangalore with the introduction of ships by the London-based trade firm Shepherd. These ships facilitated the entry of Mangalorean Catholics to Bombay.[134] In 1993, the Mangalore Diocese estimated the population of Mangalorean Catholics to be 325,510 out of a total South Canara population of 3,528,540. This amounts to 9.23 per cent of the population.[135] A notable post-independence era event pertaining to the Mangalorean Catholics that occurred in southern Karnataka, and made national headlines, were theattacks on Christian religious institutions in September 2008.
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore estimates the population of Mangalorean Catholics in the areas that comprise historical South Canara to be 360,000 out of a total population of 3,957,071, or approximately 9.5 per cent of the population.[1] Other regions of India having a significant proportion of Mangalorean Catholics, characterised by the presence of Mangalorean Catholic organisations or celebration of the unique Mangalorean CatholicMonti Fest festival, areBangalore,Chennai,Delhi,Kolkata,Mumbai,Pune,Hyderabad,Chikkamagaluru,Hassan, andRanchi.[136][137][138][139] A few Mangalorean Catholics are found inKodagu andKerala, where there are tiny pockets concentrated inThalassery,Kasargod,Kannur andKochi. They are mainly descended from those Catholics who fled the persecution and roundup by Tipu Sultan.[140] The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is scattered across the globe.[100] Many Mangalorean Catholics are found inPersian Gulf Arab states in the Middle East. The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) has estimated that around 300 Mangalorean Catholic families live in Sydney, Australia, with a lot of second generation families. Many of these are multi-racial, being married into Anglo-Saxon, Spanish, Italian, Greek, and other ethnicities.[141] MangaloreangenealogistMichael Lobo has estimated that approximately half of the Mangalorean Catholics still reside in Mangalore and the other towns in the South Canara district. As for the remaining half, about 15 per cent reside in other parts ofKarnataka (mostlyBangalore), 15 per cent reside inMumbai and its neighbouring areas, 10 per cent reside in thePersian Gulf countries, 5 per cent reside in other parts of India, and the remaining 5 per cent reside in other parts of the world.[137]
The German missionaryGeorg Plebst set up the first tile factory at Mangalore in 1860. It was called theBasel Mission tile factory.[142] Mangalorean Catholics learnt the technique of preparingMangalore tiles.[35] TheAlbuquerque tile factory, the first Indian Mangalore tile factory, was started in South Canara by Pascal Albuquerque atPanemangalore in 1868. Since then, Mangalorean Catholics have been actively involved in manufacturing the tiles. TheAlvares tile factory was established in Mangalore by Simon Alvares, a Mangalorean Catholic from Bombay, in 1878.[143] In 1991–1992, out of twelve Mangalore tile manufacturing factories in Mangalore, six were owned by Christians.[144] These tiles, prepared from hard clay, were in great demand throughout India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, and were even shipped to East Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and Australia. These were the only tiles to be recommended for Government buildings in India,[145] and still define Mangalore's skyline and characterise its urban setting.[142] Urban and rural housing follows the traditional variety oflaterite brick structures with Mangalore tile roofing on steeply sloped roofs. Inside the house, a spacious hall is present while a large verandah is present in front of the house.[146] The traditional houses tend to have spacious porticos, red cement orterracotta floors, and have fruit trees outside the house.[147] The old Catholic houses of South Canara bear traces of Portuguese influence. The tall windows, pointed roofs, and verandahs are some of thePortuguese influenced architectural features of the century-old houses.[147]
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Coconut and curry leaves are common ingredients to most curries.[148]Sanna-Dukra Maas (Sanna isidli fluffed with toddy or yeast;Dukra Maas is pork) is one of the most popular dishes of the Mangalorean Catholic community.[149]Rosachi Kadi (Ros Curry), a fish curry made with coconut milk (ros), is a traditional curry served during theRos ceremony.[150]Patrode, a dish of colocasia leaves stuffed with rice,dal,jaggery, coconut, and spices is popular.[151]Kuswar are sweet delicacies prepared during Christmas and include around 22 varieties of sweets.[152] Fish and rice form the staple diet of most Mangalorean Catholics.[153] Par-boiled rice, known as red rice, is the traditional rice eaten[154] and is preferred over raw rice.[153]
Bilingual names, having variants in both Konkani and English, likeZuãuñ (from PortugueseJoão, meaningJohn) andMornel (Magdalene) are common among Mangalorean Catholics who still use Konkani as thefirst language.[155][156] Most Mangalorean Catholic names for males follow the seconddeclension. Among women, the names follow the first declension, while among young girls, the names follow the second declension.[155]Portuguese surnames likeD'Souza,Coelho, andPinto are common among Mangalorean Catholics,[114][157] and generally follow the second declension.[158] Rarely, other European surnames are found as well.[158] Mangalorean Catholics also use Konkanised forms of their surnames in Konkani conversations, such asSoza,Kueli,Piint & so on;[158] instead of the Portuguese forms of De Souza, Coelho, Pinto etc.[157] Some families ofChristian Cxatria andChristian Brahmin origin use surnames such asPorbu,Kamath,Naik,Shenoy &Shett.[114][159] These original surnames are actually the names of five classes of persons: lord, cultivator, merchant, warrior, and writer.[160] At least one of these areSaraswat Brahmin surnames, with the exception ofPadival and Shett; Shett is used by those who trace their origins toDaivadnyas.[citation needed] These ancestral pre-Christian surnames are calledpaik in Konkani.[161] A few have reverted to theirpaik surnames.[162] While a few others use both, they use Konkani surnames which are hyphenated with the Portuguese ones.[citation needed]Mudartha is a rare and unique Konkani and Gaud Saraswat Brahmin surname found among a few Catholics who hail fromUdupi.[163]
| Mangalorean Catholic variant | English variant | Portuguese variant | Meaning | Sex |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mâri | Mary | Maria | Beloved | Female |
| Monku | Monica | Mónica | To advise | Female |
| Motes | Matthew | Mateus | Gift from God | Male |
| Nâtu | Natalia | Natália | Birthday | Female |
| Pedru | Peter | Pedro | Stone | Male |
| Šila | Sylvester | Silva | Wooded | Male |
| Zâbel | Elizabeth | Isabel | My God is my oath | Female |
| Zoze | Joseph | José | The Lord will add | Male |
| Source:An English–Konkani Dictionary (1882)[156] andA Konkani Grammar (1882)[155] | ||||
Mangalorean Catholics speak theKonkani language, which they have retained as their mother tongue despite the migration; the language is central to the community's identity.[41] They speak a dialect known as Mangalorean Catholic Konkani, which theEthnologue broadly identifies as theMangalore dialect.[164]
The Mangalorean Catholic dialect hasSanskrit influences, and preserves many features of theMaharashtri,Shauraseni, andMagadhi dialects ofPrakrit.It also hasloanwords from theTulu andKannada languages.[165] It is written in theKanarese script.[166] The dialect does not distinguish between the nouns of Kannada and Konkani and has developed into a language that is very practical for business.[citation needed] Some Kannada root words which have disappeared from the Goan dialects due to the influence of Portuguese have re-entered the Mangalorean lexicon.[165] 350–400 Portuguese lexical items are found in the Mangalorean Catholic dialect, of which more than half are related to religious terminology. The influence of Portuguese syntax is only found in some sets of phrases and prayers which have come down from the pre-migration era.[167]
The Mangalorean Catholic dialect is largely derived from theBardeskaar (North Goan) dialect and bears a good degree ofintelligibility with the modernBardeskaar dialect (spoken by NorthGoan Christians) and to a slightly lesser extent with the standard Konkani dialect.[140][168] It consequently differs from the dialect spoken by theGoud Saraswat Brahmins in South Canara, which is copiously derived and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modernSashtikaar (South Goan) dialect spoken by South Goan Christians and North Canara Konkani Hindus.[140][169] It is much closer to the dialects of the Goan Hindus than to that of theGoan Catholics.[170]
The Italian Jesuits who arrived in Mangalore in 1878, devoted themselves to the study and development of Konkani, and were thus responsible for the revival of the Konkani language in Mangalore.[171] The origin of their literature dates to 1883, when Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei, an Italian Jesuit, published the firstAn English–Konkani Dictionary in Mangalore.[172] He published a book on Konkani grammar in 1882, with a revised version in 1893.[173] In 1912 the first Konkani periodical,Konknni Dirvem (Konkani Treasure), was published in Mangalore by Louis Mascarenhas.[174] Popular Konkani periodicals published in Mangalore includeRaknno (Guardian) (1938) by Mons. Sylvester Menezes,[175]Konkan Daiz (Heritage of Konkani) (1958),[176] andKannik (Donation) (1965) by Raymond Miranda.[177] The twentieth-century literature focused on themes like the suffering of the Mangalorean Catholics during their 15-year captivity at Seringapatam and the oppression of Goan Catholics during theGoa Inquisition.[178][179] The first Konkani novel in KarnatakaAangel (1915), was written in the Kannada script by Joachim Santan Alvares.[180][181] In Bombay—which had a small Mangalorean Catholic community—periodicals likeSukh-Dukh (Ups and Downs) (1948) by G.M.B. Rodrigues,Konknni Yuvak (Konkani Youth) (1949) byGeorge Fernandes,Poinnari (Traveller) (1950) byV.J.P. Saldanha,[175] andDivo (Lamp) (1995) by J.B. Moraes were published.[182]
Modern literature is diverse and includes themes such asIndian politics in books likeWhat Ails the Socialists by George Fernandes,[183] historical awakening, in books such asSarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians by Alan Machado Prabhu,[184][185] and sexual desires, inThe Revised Kama Sutra: A Novel of Colonialism and Desire by Richard Crasta.[186] Genealogist Michael Lobo published the first genealogical Encyclopedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999. This genealogical encyclopaedia, which exceeds 6,000 pages, covers over a thousand families, each of which is researched as far as its ancestry can be traced. Three offshoots have thus far been launched, which includeMangaloreans Worldwide – An International Directory (1999),Distinguished Mangalorean Catholics (2000), andThe Mangalorean Catholic Community – A Professional History / Directory (2002).[187] William Robert da Silva translated the first complete Bible from English into Konkani. The work entitledBaibol (Bible) was written in the Kannada script, and published by the Mangalore-based Konkani Bible committee in 1997.[188] In 2000, the Mangalore Diocese also released a Konkani Bible in Kannada script entitledPavitr Pustak (Holy Book), which was made available online on 26 July 2007.[189]
Mangalorean Catholics have retained many Indian customs and traditions; these are especially visible during the celebration of a marriage.[190] Their culture is more traditional and Indian.[citation needed] Though the Portuguese traded quite frequently in Mangalore, and most of the priests arriving in the area were Portuguese,there did not develop a community identified with Portugal and Portuguese culture.[citation needed] Their marriage rites have similarities with the Shenvi sub-caste of theSaraswat Brahmins.[191] It was mainly these pre-Christian marriage rites that the Portuguese found objectionable and prohibited during the Goan Inquisition.[35][192]
Theroce[b] (ritual bathing) ceremony, conducted one or two days before a wedding, celebrates the last day of virginity of the bride and the groom; it involves the parents' blessing the bride and groom, who are bathed inroce (coconut milk),[193] while a cross is inscribed on the bride's forehead.[35][194][195] The ethnic Konkani marriage rituals includesoirik (betrothal),[196] exchange ofpaan pod[c] (betel leaves) during the marriage ceremony,[197] which known asbadalchen (changing hands; formal acceptance of the promise made by the bride's father to the bridegroom's father that he will give his daughter in marriage).[198][d][196] The bride is adorned with thesado (weddingsari)[199] andpirduk[f] (wedding necklace).[199] Other rites include theonpnni orvopsun diunche (giving away the bride formally by the father or the guardian of the bride),[200]porthoponn (re-invitation to the bride's house),[200] and singing ofhonvious (hymns).[196] Some other customs includenovemjeevon (partaking of the food prepared from new corn) andnovem (blessing of new harvests).[196]
In addition to common Christian festivals like Christmas,Great Friday, and Easter, the community celebrates many other festivals of religious and historical significance.Monti Fest is one of the major festivals, celebrated on 8 September. It combines theNativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary and blessing ofnovem (new crops). The festival derives its name from theMonte Mariano Church at Farangipet, and was initiated by Fr Joachim Miranda, aGoan priest at Farangipet, in 1763. Although Tipu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara, he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the friendship of his father Hyder Ali with Fr Miranda.[84]Attur Jatre orAttur Fest (Attur festival) is the feast ofSt Lawrence, celebrated at theSt. Lawrence Shrine on the outskirts ofKarkala.[149] This shrine, in existence since 1759, is said to have a history of miracles.[149]Evkaristik Purshanv (Eucharistic Procession) is an annual religious procession led by the Bishop of Mangalore fromMilagres Church toRosario Cathedral.[149] The procession, held on the first Sunday of the New Year of the Gregorian calendar, seeks blessings for the new year.[149]
Mangalorean Catholic men traditionally white or black coats known askutanv (similar to thebandhgalas), while thepudvem (dhoti), a piece of unstitched cloth, usually around 7 yards (6.4 m) long, was wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist. The turban calledmundaas orurmal, were usually flattened like theCoorgi turbans.[201] It was a long white piece of cloth with atodop (golden hem) tied around the head like a turban in a particular manner by which they could be easily identified as Catholic Christians.[201][202] In modern times however, this mode has changed. Only a few older men can be seen wearing this traditional dress on church-going occasions.[203]
Before marriage, women used to wear akirgi (half sari) andbaju (kurti). Thekirgi is a piece of cloth not longer than four feet, and about three feet wide. It was wrapped around the body from the waist down. A jacket with long sleeves called abaju, was used to cover the upper part of the body. This dress was a sign of the bride's virginity and was worn during theroce orros ceremony.[201][204] Thekirgi was wrapped around the waist, but the end of thesari is not thrown over the shoulder.[204] To wear the fullsari with its end thrown over the shoulder, known asworl, it was the exclusive right of a married woman.[205] Married women used to wear sarees the general way.[206] Thesalwar kameez and thelungi are forms of popular clothing among present-day Mangaloreans. The Mangalorean Catholic bride's weddingsari is known as asado.[e][207] It is usually a red-colouredBenaresi sari which is made of finely woven silk and is decorated with elaborate engravings.[199] In olden days, the bride wore on her head a red cloth, three feet square. Gold ornaments were absent in those days: the bride went to the church dressed as a virgin girl. In modern times, the bride wears (in place of thekirgi) a red sari, but the end of thesari is not thrown over the shoulder; it is wrapped around the waist. The bride wears a few gold ornaments, some rings on the fingers, earrings, and at least two of thedantoni (golden combs).[207] Other ornaments worn by the bride in the olden days includedkanti,chakrasar,kap,karap,mugud,kanto, anddantoni.[204]
Dantoni consist of two ordinary combs with the upper part of each one plated with gold; they are worn in the hair on both sides of the head over the ears. On the way to church the bride wears some white and red flowers stuck in the hair. In the centre of the forehead, abang (gold chain) was placed with a pendant.[208] Thepirduk (mangalsutra)[f] is a necklace made of black beads strung on gold wire as either as a single chain or double chain, with a connecting pendant.[citation needed] This necklace is worn as long as the husband is alive; a widow is expected to take it off.[205] It is highly prized by womenas the symbol of their married state.[209] A widow is expected to wear a blacksari for the remainder of her life, and is not allowed to wear ornaments.[190] The bridegroom's dress in early times consisted of a breechcloth (dhoti), with a red and gold hem (todop), a coat (kutanv) & a towel (urmal) on the head.[201][204] The bridegroom wore achakrasar (neck chain) around his neck. He wore a pair of sandals or at least a pair of socks.[210] Presently, most Mangalorean Catholic couples opt for awhite wedding, where the groom wears ablack suit, while the bride wears awhite dress.[211] The traditional style of wedding is becoming exceedingly rare.[212]
Catholics were divided into three broad divisions: the higher classes of Catholics were landlords, merchants and public servants. The middle classes were traders, cultivators; the lower classes were agricultural laborers, tailors and domestic servants.[11] Mangalorean Catholics retained the same caste system as their Konkani ancestors in Goa. They were mainly divided into four castes:Bamonns,Charodis,Sudirs, andGaudis.[213] There were also local converts fromBunt,Beary,Koragas,Holeya,Mogaveera,Billavas,Mansa and other communities due to the social reform and missionary activities of theJesuits andCapuchins in the 19th and early 20th centuries.[214][10][11]
Converts from Brahmin sub-castes such as theSaraswat Brahmins,Padyes,Daivadnya goldsmiths/ merchants etc;[10] were merged into the Christian caste ofBamonn.[37][215] TheBamonns were further divided into other subcastes or classes according to rank. In Mangalore, they were sub-divided intoSirudhegars (the highest class),Alhdhengars,Cutdhnangars,Dhivodegars,Nathnolegars,Sashragars,Puruvargars, andMaidhegars. These names are taken from the villages to which they once belonged.[216] According to John B. Kutinha of the Karnataka Second Backward Classes Commission, the Bamon Christians and Sarodi Christians were akin toVaishyas andShudras, and theGaudi Christians were akin tountouchables.[217]
TheCharodis were converts from theKshatriya (warrior class) andVaishya (merchant class) castes.[213] They were generally engaged in farming, trade, and commercial vocations.[218] The artisan converts formed the third group who were known asSudirs (the Konkani word forShudras who were the labour class).[213] They were workers and agricultural labourers engaged in service professions.[218] The converts from the fisher caste residing aroundUllal, Kuloor, and other places around the seacoast were calledGaudis, and formed the fourth group.[37] They cultivated the lands of theBamonns and the high-caste Hindus.[219] Other minor castes included thePadvals, whom historian Severine Silva found to be nativeTulu Jain Bunt converts.[37]
The Mangalorean Catholics constituted a small community widely scattered across theSouth Canara district. Rather than being a closely knit and united group, the Goan Catholic immigrants and their progeny did not associate with the native Catholics on account of caste, origin, and language, and even among themselves were strongly divided by caste.[13] The Hindu uppercastes, including the indigenous Brahmins (mostly belonging to theShivalli,Havyaka, andKota sub-groups) andBunts did not associate with the Catholic Christians and would not admit them into their houses on account of their religion.[190] However, a close contact was kept by the Catholic Christians with the Hindus of the same caste who were migrants from Goa. Catholic Christians would invite their Hindu cousins to festivities such as birth celebrations, weddings, and funeral feasts. The Hindus accepted such invitations.[190] Unlike the Hindu counterpart, a high-caste Mangalorean Catholic did not consider himself polluted upon physical contact with a member of the lower castes, but members of different castes did not fraternise or invite each other home for dinner.[220] According to sociologist Vinay Rajath D, the relationship between caste and occupation was very tenuous among Catholic Christians, as Bamons as well as Sudirs consisted of cultivators, agricultural labourers, traders, masons, and cooks.[10]
Marriage between members of the various castes was not permitted, and such matches were strictly discouraged by the elders. For instance, aBamonn boy would only marry aBamonn girl and aCharodi boy would only marry aCharodi girl.[221] TheBamonns andCharodis would invite neighbours and friends belonging to theSudir andGaudi castes to special occasions such as weddings and baptisms, although the latter would have to observe certain restrictions with regards to sitting and eating. The lower castes felt honoured if they were invited and usually accepted such invitations.[222] The upper castes usually did not attend the ceremonies of the lower castes, even if expressly invited.[223]
It was difficult for the few priests who had accompanied the Christian emigrants to South Canara to look after them properly. Thus, thegurkar system came into existence.Gurkars were Mangalorean Catholic men of good moral character who were selected as headmen in Christian settlements. They were entrusted with the social and religious supervision of the community.[50] After migration, the only possible occupation of a Mangalorean Catholic was agriculture, since they were skilled farmers.[37] Every farmer practised carpentry, but it was quite primitive and unskilled, and other crafts and industries were non-existent.[224] Themass was celebrated in Latin; but thesermon, thecatechism, and the explication of the mysteries were delivered to the congregation in Konkani.[225]
The parishes were grouped into deaneries calledvarados. Every parish was divided into wards, whileparish councils were present in most parishes.[135] About 15 percent of the households in the parishes were literate.[226] A widow had to remain indoors, practically for the rest of her life. Since high-caste Hindu widows cannot remarry after the death of their husbands, the high-caste Christians too considered the remarriage of a widow as something unnatural.Canon law did allow remarriage for widows and therefore there was no direct prohibition for widows to remarry in the society of the Christians of South Canara. Few women had the courage to go against the strict conventions of their community. A widow who remarried was looked down upon, pitied, and shunned as unlucky. But she was not ill-treated or made an outcast, and no stigma was attached to her husband.[190][220] Succession to property was practised as per the Hindu laws.[220]
By the end of the 20th century however, social categorization and differentiation became manifested not on various factors apart from caste. Catholic Christians who belonged to the lower economic classes and were tenants in former times now have become land owners, due to the land reforms.[10] Mangalorean Catholic society had become very mobile owing to factors such as education, job affiliation, non-agricultural jobs, acquisition of wealth, cultivation of cash crops, inter-caste marriages, inter-religious marriages, and migration to metropolitan cities.[10]
On 26 and 27 January 2008, aKonkani cultural event,Konkani Nirantari, held in Mangalore by the Mangalorean Catholic organisationMandd Sobhann; entered theGuinness Book of World Records for non-stop singing of Konkani hymns.[227]Mandd Sobhann members sang for 40 hours, surpassing the old record of 36 hours held by a Brazilian musical troupe,Communidade Evangelica Luterana São Paulo (Lutheran Evangelical Community ofSão Paulo) ofUniversidade Luterana do Brasil (Lutheran University of Brazil).[227] The Silver Band, started in 1906 by Lawrence D'Souza in Mangalore, is one of the oldest and most popular brass bands in Mangalore.[228] The well-known Konkani hymnRiglo Jezu Molliant (Jesus entered the Garden of Gethsemene) was written by Fr. Joachim Miranda, an 18th-century Goan Catholic priest, when he was held captive by Tipu Sultan on his Canara mission.[229]Mons. Minguel Placid Colaco wrote the devotional hymnJezucho Mog (Jesus' Love)[230] in 1905,[182] and translated the Latin hymnStabat Mater into Konkani under the titleKhursa Mullim (Bottom of the Holy Cross).[231] Joseph Saldanha'sShembor Cantigo (100 Hymns)[231] and Raimundo Mascarenhas'Deva Daia Kakultichea (O Compassionate Master) were popular.[232] Other popular Konkani hymns composed by Mangalorean Catholics areAika Cristanv Jana (Listen, O' Christian People),Utha Utha Praniya (Wake up, Creatures), andSorgim Thaun (From Heaven).[233]
Konkanipop music became popular afterIndian Independence in 1947. Henry D'Souza and Helen D'Cruz are known for the Konkani love duetKathrina in 1971[234] and the love BalladGaracho Divo (Lamp of the House) in the 1970s,[235] while Wilfy Rebimbus'sonnetMog Tuzo Kithlo Axelom (How I Have Loved Thee) from 1977 is popular.[236] Konkani plays, especially religious ones, were written and staged in Mangalore in the 20th century by prominent playwrights such as Pedru John D'Souza, Pascal Sequeira and Bonaventure Tauro.[125] TheGhumat was a popular musical instrument played especially during weddings.[237] The instrument has the form of an earthen pot but is open at both sides. One end is covered with the skin of some wild animal, and the other is left open.[238] The traditional theatre form is calledGumat, and is performed on the eve of the marriage or in connection with the marriage celebrations in the decoratedpandal (stage).[239] The play is conducted by males belonging to both the brides' and bridegrooms' parties, and usually takes place for two or three nights.[239] The plays performed are usually those of Biblical stories, and their morals are presented with the purpose of educating the bride and bridegroom.[239] This tradition has almost completely died out among the present generation.[239]
The tradition ofVoviyo (wedding songs), sung by women during aRos, is important to this community. The procedure is that an elderly lady, usually theyejman (wife of the master of ceremonies, who is known asyejmani) who knows thevoviyos, leads the song while the rest of the women sing along. Only women whose husbands are still living may sing. In ancient times, the wedding songs expressed very lofty sentiments and gave vent to the feelings of the people about the marriage partners and their families, invoking the blessing of God on them.[240]
Aprosachi vatli, kasgran petli, ruzai mai betli, hea rosalagim.
TheRos brass plate is made by brass smith, our Lady of Rosary is here at this ros ceremony.Dimbi ami galeam, santa kuru kadeam, kurpa ami magieam amchea Jezulagim.
Let us kneel, make sign of the cross, and pray for God's grace.Akashim mod, narl kubear telacho kuris hokleachea kopalar.
Clouds in the sky, coconut on the tree, oily sign of cross on the forehead of the bride.
— Voviyos taken fromThe Tradition of Voviyo article by Maurice D'Mello[241]
Konkani Christians of the erstwhile South Kanara area belong to multiple castes, that correspond to the Hindu castes they converted from. These include:Gowdis,Charodis,Bahmons,Sudirs,Kharvi,Dalits,Madivals,Renders,Kumbars,Koragas, etc. Other communities in the region treated the Catholic Christians of Dakshina Kannada as a single jati or caste group but the Catholics were not a monolithic block. Historically, they had internal divisions and inter-marriages between these castes were not forbidden, but rarely took place.[242][10][243] Caste differences among Mangalore catholics have reduced because of advancing education, inter-caste marriages, inter-religious marriages, migration to the gulf, and land reforms in the 1970s.[10][244] As Christians in Karnataka, they are classified under Category III(B) ofother backward classes in Karnataka and are eligible for reservations in education and government employment for noncreamy-layer sections, whilescheduled caste converts to Christianity are classified under Category I.[245][246][247]
Many organisations cater to the community in South Kanara. The most notable areMandd Sobhann, which broke the Guinness record for non-stop singing, and the Catholic Association of South Kanara (CASK).[248] The first session of the Canara Konkani Catholic World Convention took place on 26 December 2004 in Mangalore.[249] The convention aimed to establish institutions to conduct research on the history of Mangalorean Catholics.[250]
In India, the Kanara Catholic Association, Mumbai, (KCA Mumbai,[251] established in 1901), the Kanara Catholic Association, (KCA Bangalore, established in 1955)[252] and Mangalore Catholic Association, (Pune)[253] (MCA, established on 10 February 1996) in are well known. Also theKanara Entrepreneurs, Bangalore (established in 2007) a non profit group to promote skill development and success among Mangalorean Catholic Entrepreneurs, students and catholic institutions are part of the efforts to help the community.[254]
In the United Kingdom, Mangalorean United Konkani Association (MUKA) inNottingham is popular.[255]
In Australia, The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Victoria (MCAV) established inMelbourne was the first organisation for the community in Australia.[256] In 2006 the Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) was established in Australia.[141]
In Singapore, the Singapore Mangalorean and Goan Association (SingManGo) group caters to the needs of those who have migrated there.[citation needed]
In North America, the Mangalorean Association of Canada[257] and the Mangalorean Konkan Christian Association (MKCA) in Chicago[258] are well known.
In the Middle East, the Mangalore Cultural Association (MCA) inDoha,Qatar; was established in March 2008.[259]
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
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