Maghrebi Arabs (Arabic:العرب المغاربة,romanized: al-‘Arab al-Maghāriba) orNorth African Arabs (Arabic:عرب شمال أفريقيا,romanized: ‘Arab Shamāl Ifrīqiyā) are the inhabitants of theMaghreb region ofNorth Africa whose ethnic identity isArab, whose native language isArabic and trace their ancestry to the tribes of theArabian Peninsula.^[1] This ethnic identity is a product of the centuries-longArab migration to the Maghreb since the 7th century, which changed the demographic scope of the Maghreb and was a major factor in the ethnic, linguistic and culturalArabization of the Maghreb region. The descendants of the original Arab settlers who continue to speakArabic as a first language currently form the single largest population group in North Africa.^[2]

Arab migration first started in 647 with theArab conquest of the Maghreb under theRashidun Caliphate, whenAbdallah ibn Sa'd led the invasion with 20,000 soldiers fromMedina in theArabian Peninsula. The invasion swiftly took overTripolitania and then defeated a much largerByzantine army at theBattle of Sufetula in the same year, forcing the newByzantineExarch of Africa to pay tribute.^[3][4]

Increasing Arab migration towards the end of the 7th century finally overcame Berber and Byzantine resistance, gradually converting the Berbers toIslam and incorporating the entire Maghreb into theUmayyad Caliphate.^[5] Throughout the period of conquest, Arab migrants settled in all parts of the Maghreb, coming as peaceful newcomers and were welcomed everywhere. Large Arab settlements were established in many areas. A considerable portion of the Arab settlers belonged to theNajdi tribe ofBanu Tamim.^[6] Arabians arrived in the Maghreb in large numbers after an expedition by theBanu Muzaina tribe to the Maghreb under the leadership ofZayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi in the 7th–8th century.^[7] The Arab Muslim conquerors had a much more durable impact on the culture of the Maghreb than did the region's conquerors before and after them, and by the 11th century, the Berbers had become Islamized andArabized.^[8]

During the Umayyad conquest, 40,000 Arab troops from Egypt were brought in. The Umayyads controlled the vast territory of the Maghreb through a military force of 50,000Arabian soldiers who originally served in Egypt. These became a hereditary ruling class primarily made up of the conquerors and their descendants with very few outsiders. Land grants were given to these soldiers, creating a landed Arab aristocracy with extensive landholdings, cultivated in many cases by slaves fromsub-Saharan Africa. An example of these were theFihrids, descendants ofUqba ibn Nafi, who occupied a privileged position in Ifriqiyan andAndalusi society. There were other powerful Arab settlers who briefly appeared in the sources, especially those ofQurayshi ancestry.^[9] Arab settlers mostly settled in cities, such asKairouan, until the migration of the nomadicBanu Hilal andBanu Sulaym in the 11th century.^[10] The Umayyad Caliphate was aware of the importance of the importance of the spread and settlement of Arabs in the Maghreb. Umayyad CaliphHisham ibn Abd al-Malik swore that he would send a large army and added "I will not leave a single Berber compound without pitching beside it a tent of a tribesman fromQays orTamim".^[11] During this time, the majority of Maghrebi Arabs wereQahtanites fromSouth Arabia.^[12]

During the rule of theAbbasid Caliphate, there was a great influx ofKhurasani Arabs fromIraq to the Maghreb. These were mostly North Arabian tribes, among them was theNajdi tribe ofBanu Tamim. This shifted the tribal balance ofIfriqiya in favor of the North ArabianAdnanite tribes who became the majority, to the detriment of the formerly more numerousSouth ArabianQahtanite tribes.^[12]

During the rule of theAghlabid dynasty (founded in 800), Arab migration to increased in numbers due to the anti-Kharijite wars. The number of Arab migrants of Ifriqiya concentrated in the army and the cities, mainly Kairouan, has been estimated at 100,000. Most of the Arab migrants came fromSyria andIraq, which from the start supplied numerous migrants to the Maghreb.^[13] The organization of the Aghlabid army was largely based on the Arab tribes who settled in Ifriqiya in the late seventh and eighth centuries.^[14] These troops were called thejund, descendants of Arab tribesmen who participated in the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb.^[15] In 789, descendant ofAli ibn Abi Talib,Idris ibn Abdallah, fled from theHejaz and arrived inTangier after the failed revolt against the Abbasids in theBattle of Fakhkh. He founded theIdrisid dynasty, which established control over modern-day Morocco and western Algeria. The Idrisid dynasty played an important role in the early Islamization of the area, and contributed to an increase in Arab migration andArabization in major urban centers of the western Maghreb.^[16] SeveralShia Arabs rapidly flocked to Fez, Arabizing the region. Fez experienced large waves of Arab migration, including one which involved 800 Arabs fromAl-Andalus in 818 and one which involved 2,000 Arab families fromIfriqiya in 824.^[17]

These Arab political entities, in addition to theSalihids andFatimids, were influential in encouraging Arabization by attracting Arab migrants and by promoting Arab culture. In addition, disturbances and political unrest in theMashriq compelled the Arabs to migrate to the Maghreb in search of security and stability. By this time, there were several Arab tribes in the Maghreb, includingAzd,Lakhm,Judham,Ghassan,Mudar,Rabi'a,Qahtan,Banu Adi,Quda'a,Banu Hashim,Banu Asad andBanu Tamim.^[11]

The 11th century witnessed the most significant wave of Arab migration, surpassing all previous movements. This event unfolded when theZirid dynasty of Ifriqiya proclaimed its independence from theFatimid Caliphate of Egypt. In retribution against the Zirids, the Fatimids dispatched largeBedouin Arab tribes, mainly theBanu Hilal andBanu Sulaym, to defeat the Zirids and settle in the Maghreb. These tribes followed anomadic lifestyle and were originally from theHejaz andNajd.^[7]

To persuade the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym to migrate to the Maghreb, the Fatimid caliph gave each tribesman a camel and money and helped them cross from the east to the west bank of theNile river. The severe drought in Egypt at the time also persuaded these tribes to migrate to the Maghreb, which had a better economic situation at the time. The Fatimid caliph instructed them to rule the Maghreb instead of the Zirid emirAl-Mu'izz and told them "I have given you the Maghrib and the rule of al-Mu'izz ibn Balkīn as-Sanhājī the runaway slave. You will want for nothing." and told Al-Mu'izz "I have sent you horses and put brave men on them so that God might accomplish a matter already enacted".^[18]

According toIbn Khaldun, they were accompanied by their wives, children and stock. They settled in the Maghreb after repeatedly fighting battles against the Berbers, such as theBattle of Haydaran. TheZirids abandonedKairouan to take refuge on the coast where they survived for a century. The Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym spread on the high plains ofConstantine where they gradually obstructed theQal'at Bani Hammad as they had done toKairouan a few decades ago. From there, they gradually gained control over thehigh plains ofAlgiers andOran. In the second half of the 12th century, they went to theMoulouya valley and theAtlantic coast in the western Maghreb to areas such asDoukkala.^[19]

They heavily transformed the culture of the Maghreb intoArab culture, and spread nomadism in areas where agriculture was previously dominant.^[7] It played a major role in spreadingBedouin Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near theSahara.^[11] In addition, they destroyed the Berber Zirid state and most of its cities, sparing only the Mediterranean coastal strip atal-Mahdiyya, and deeply weakened the neighboringHammadid dynasty and theZenata. Their influx was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural, genetic and ethnicArabization of theMaghreb.^[7] According to Ibn Khaldun, the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had becomedesertified and turned into completely arid desert. The journey of Banu Hilal is recounted in the Arabic oral poem ofSirat Bani Hilal.^[7]

Sources estimated that the total number of Arab nomads who migrated to the Maghreb in the 11th century was at around 1 million Arabs.^[18]

To weaken resistance by Arab tribes inIfriqiya, theAlmohad rulerAbd al-Mu'min transferred them toMorocco in large numbers and settled them in theAtlantic plains. The region was formerly inhabited by theBarghawata tribal group, however this area was largely destroyed and depopulated by theAlmoravids in their war against the heretic Barghawata, and it was depopulated again by anAlmohad expedition in 1149–1150 and again in 1197–1198 to suppress revolts against them in the region.^[20] The Almohads helped the Arab tribes to pass the barriers ofAtlas mountains, and accelerated their expansion to Morocco to complete the nomadic Bedouin predominance over the lowlands of the Maghreb as far as the Atlantic coastal plains.^[20] The appearance of the Arabs added to the complexity of the ethnic population of Morocco and introduced a significant non-Berber element. They increasingly played an important role in the politics of the Almohad Empire. The Almohad ruler Abd al-Mu'min expected opposition from theMasmuda to whom he was a stranger, so he gained Arab support to secure the succession of his son. With the decline of the Almohad army, the Arabs became the most powerful force in the Moroccan plains, and no ruler could have held authority there without their support.^[20] The later'Alawite dynasty came to power in the 17th century with the help of these Arab tribes, who they mobilized against the powerful Berberprincipality of Dila'iyyah.^[21]

Under theMarinids, the Arabs grew in importance in Morocco. Due to the lack ofZenata supporters, they welcomed the support of Arab nomads who already began to penetrate into the country under the Almohads. The Zenata were heavily assimilated into Arab culture and the MarinidMakhzan (government) composed of both Arabs and Zenata. This led to the expansion of Arab tribes into Morocco where they settled in the plains, and many Berber groups wereArabized. Under the Marinids,Arabic became both the common and official language.^[22] Like the Marinids, theZayyanid dynasty of theKingdom of Tlemcen relied on a makhzan of Arab and Berber tribes.^[23]

TheMa'qilis also entered the Maghreb during this wave of Arabian tribal immigration in the 11th century. They later allied with the Banu Hilal and entered under their protection.^[24] They adapted to the climatic desert conditions of the Maghreb, discovering the same way of life as in the Arabian Peninsula.^[25] In the 13th century, they occupied southernAlgeria and dominated the oases ofTuat and Gourara. At this point, the Maqil group disintegrated into different populations in the Maghreb and had given rise to theBeni Hassan along with other related groups. The Beni Hassan expanded southwest and occupiedSanhaja lands in the 13th century after invading and defeating the Berber confederation, and the Sanhaja has long had to pay tribute to the Bedouin invaders.^[26] They also dominated the valleys of theMoulouya,Draa,Sous, and theTafilalt oasis region.^[27]

TheChar Bouba War in modern dayWestern Sahara andMauritania from 1644 to 1674, which after decades of confrontations ended up completely Arabizing the native Berber population, destroying their language and culture and giving rise to the contemporarySahrawi people.^[28][29][30] Harry Norris noted "the Moorish Sahara is the western extremity of the Arab World. Western it certainly is, some districts further west than Ireland, yet in its way of life, its culture, its literature and in many of its social customs, it has much in common with the heart lands of the Arab East, in particular with the Hijaz and Najd and parts of the Yemen".^[31]

Starting from the late 15th century, a new wave of Arabs arrived as refugees fromAl-Andalus in response to the persecution they faced under Christian Spanish rule after thefall of Granada in theReconquista in 1492.^[32] In 1609, Spain implemented theExpulsion of the Moriscos, which aimed to forcibly remove all Muslims from theIberian Peninsula, expelling about 275,000 to 300,000 of them.^[33] Accustomed to urban life, they settled in urban cities in the Maghreb, includingFez,Rabat andTangiers in Morocco,Tlemcen andConstantine in Algeria,Kairouan,Tunis andBizerte in Tunisia. They brought with them the urban dialects ofAndalusi Arabic, which they introduced to the existingBedouin Arabic dialects of the Maghreb.^[34] This event greatly increased the process of Arabization in the Maghreb from the 15th to the 17th century.^[35] There were several Arab tribes in Al-Andalus, of which the most prominent wereQays,Kilab,Uqayl,Mudar,Rabi'a,Yaman,Tayy,Lakhm,Judham,Amilah, andQuda'a.^[36]

Maghrebi Arabs speak local dialects ofArabic. Arabic was introduced to the Maghreb by the early wave of migration prior to the 11th century, which contributed to the Berber adoption ofArab culture. TheArabic language spread during this period and droveLatin into extinction in the cities. The Arabization took place around Arab centres through the influence of Arabs in the cities and rural areas surrounding them. The migration ofBanu Hilal andBanu Sulaym in the 11th century played a major role in spreadingBedouin Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near theSahara,^[11] as well as heavily transforming the culture of the Maghreb into Arab culture, and spreadingBedouin nomadism in areas where agriculture was previously dominant.^[7]

TheBedouin dialects in the Maghreb, commonly known asHilalian dialects, are spoken in various regions, including theAtlantic plains in Morocco, theHigh Plains andSahara regions in Algeria, theSahel in Tunisia, and the regions ofTripolitania andCyrenaica in Libya. The Bedouin dialects can be classified into four primary varieties:Sulaymi dialects (Libya and southern Tunisia), EasternHilalian dialects (central Tunisia and eastern Algeria), CentralHilalian dialects (south and central Algeria),Ma'qili dialects (western Algeria and Morocco) andHassaniya dialects (Mauritania, Western Sahara and southern Morocco; also classified asMaqil).^[37][38] In Morocco, Bedouin Arabic dialects are spoken in plains and in recently founded cities such asCasablanca. Thus, the city Arabic dialect shares with the Bedouin dialectsgal 'to say' (qala); they also represent the bulk of modern urban dialects, such as those ofOran andAlgiers.^[39]

Today, the Arabs make up the majority of the population of the countries of the Maghreb, comprising 70%^[40] to 80%^[41] of Algeria, 92%^[42] to 97%^[43] of Libya, 67%^[44] to 70%^[45] of Morocco and 98% of Tunisia.^[46]

The vast majority of the inhabitants of the Maghreb adhere toSunni Islam and itsMaliki school. The Maghreb had undergone a process ofMalikization in the 11th and 12th centuries, which gradually marginalizedShia andKharijite forms of Islam and encouraged the adoption of the Maliki madhab, a more conservative and mainstream form of Sunni Islam.^[47] By the mid-tenth century, Kharijism died out in North Africa.^[48] The Maghreb historically had a large Shia Arab population, such as the ZaydiIdrisids and the Bedouin tribes ofBanu Hilal andBanu Sulaym that emigrated to the Maghreb.^[49] Albeit, the vast majority converted to Maliki Sunni Islam in the later centuries.

The Arabian tribes that settled in the Maghreb emerged into several contemporary sub-tribes. The most notable Arab tribes of Morocco includeAbda,Ahl Rachida,Azwafit,Banu Ma'qil,Banu Tamim,Beni Ahsen,Beni 'Amir,Beni Guil,Beni Ḥassān,Banu Hilal,Beni Khirane,Beni Mathar,Beni Moussa,Banu Sulaym,Beni Zemmour,Chaouia,Doukkala,Hyayna,Khlout,Mzab,Oulad Delim,Oulad Tidrarin,Oulad Zyan,Rahamna,Sless,Zaër,Zyayda. There are several tribes of Bedouin origin throughout Tunisia, such asBanu Hudhayl andShammar, however they are not very nomadic nowadays and they mostly live in towns. The major Arab tribes in Libya areQadhadhfa,Magarha,Warfalla,Firjan,Saʿada and Murabtin,Masamir,Zuwayya,Awlad Busayf,Awlad Sulayman andAbaydat. The most well known Arab tribes of Algeria areChaamba,Dhouaouda,Doui-Menia,Ghenanma,Beni Hassan,Ouled Djerir,Awlad Sidi Shaykh,Banu Tamim,Banu Hilal,Banu Sulaym,Thaaliba,Ouled Nail,Beni Amer,Hamyan and many more.Bedouin tribes in Algeria primarily live in theAlgerian Desert.^[50]

• Azwafit
• Ahl Rachida, anArab tribe, also referred to as Ouled Sidi Yaakoub. The tribe can trace its lineage to the Islamic prophetMuhammad through his grandson,Hasan ibn Ali.
• Hyayna, an Arab tribe whose origin dates back to the immigration of a part of Banu Amer Ibn Zoghba (Banu Hilal) after having joined Muhammad ash-Sheykh in exchange for land and becoming aGuich tribe (an army tribe) in the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century from the West ofAlgeria untilMorocco (North East of Fez)
• Hamyan
• Rhamna
• Abda, an Arab tribe whose origin dates back to the arrival of the BeniMaqil tribe at the end of the Merinid era. Historian Eugene Aubin wrote: "the Abda are a powerful tribe, thirty-five-thousand strong, of pure Arab race, they occupy a fertile territory, rich in horses and cattle. It is one of five quasi-Makhzen tribes of Morocco."^[51] It consists of three branches, Bhatra, Rabiaa and Ouled Amer.
• Beni Ahsen, an Arab tribe, part of Beni Maqil. They settled in the Missour and Almis area around the 16th century, and migrated northwest of the Sefrou region in the 17th century. In the 18th century they were pushed west by the Zemmour tribe, which had migrated north from the south. Today they are located in the region of Rabat and the Atlantic coast.^[52]
• Beni Amir
• Beni Guil, an Arab tribe that can trace its lineage to the prophet's grandson,Hasan ibn Ali. In the 10th century their ancestors were given the right to graze in eastern and western Morocco by the Fatimid ruler Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah.
• Beni Mathar
• Beni Hassan
• Maqil
• Beni Khirane
• Beni Zemmour

The Arab Muslim conquerors of the seventh and eighth centuries had a much more durable impact on the culture of the Maghreb than did the region's conquerors before and after them.^[53] The later large scaleArab tribal migrations of the eleventh and twelfth century accelerated the Arabization process and heavily transformed the culture of the Maghreb intoArab culture, spreading nomadism in areas where agriculture was previously dominant.^[7]

Moroccan women traditionally wear copious amounts of jewelry on their neck, arms, head and ears. Preferably, the jewelry should be made from pure gold as this signifies that the family is economically well-off. The jewelry tends to be decorated with different jewels likerubies,olivines,Andalucian beads,pearls anddiamonds. The olivines and the pearls are traditionally used in most Maghrebi jewelry. The olivine represents female beauty, and was historically associated with the pre-Islamic goddesses of the Arabian pantheon. The pearls used in the jewelry represent wealth and fortune.

Brides in Morocco adorn themselves in extensive amounts of jewelry, the amount of jewelry depends on the economic status of the family. Different regions in Morocco have different types of traditional jewelry. Brides in the region ofTanger-Tetouan add pearls to their traditional jewelry, whereas brides in the region ofFes add pheridot jewels and gold. In theSahara, gold and coloured beads are added to the outfit. Families that can't afford to buy jewelry rent it for the occasion.

The headdresses used in the ceremony also tend to differ depending on the region. The northern region of Morocco, (Tanger-Tetouan), use a striped and glittery fabric to cover the bride's head. A headpiece in either silver or gold (depending on the region) is placed over the fabrics and is sometimes decorated with jewels. In the central region, Fes-Meknes, a decorated dark green and golden fabric is used, over it a golden headpiece is placed, decorated with dark green pheridot jewels and pearls hanging down over the face. In the southern region, Western Sahara, the women wear a headpiece decorated with gold pieces and coloured beads that differ from tribe to tribe. The bride's head is covered with a black fabric.

Arabs in the Maghreb have heavily influenced the cuisine of the Maghreb, which is now a blend ofArabian,Mediterranean andBerber cuisines, with historic influences fromOttoman andEuropean cuisines.^[54] Dishes includeTharid,Chermoula,Harira,Pastilla,Rfissa,Tangia,Seffa,Mechoui,Shorba,Shakshouka,Assidat Zgougou,Brik,Fricasse,Harissa,Lablabi, andBazin.

• Arab world
• Arab-Berber
• Moroccans
• Algerians
• Maghrebis