Macedonia (Ancient Greek:Μακεδονία)^[2][3] was aprovince ofancient Rome, encompassing the territory of the formerAntigonidKingdom of Macedonia, which had been conquered by theRoman Republic in 168 BC at the conclusion of theThird Macedonian War. The province was created in 146 BC, after the Roman generalQuintus Caecilius Metellus defeatedAndriscus of Macedon, the last self-styledKing of Macedonia in theFourth Macedonian War. The province incorporated the former Kingdom of Macedonia with the addition ofEpirus,Thessaly, and parts ofIllyria,Paeonia andThrace.^[4]

Macedonia Μακεδονία
Province of theRoman Empire
146 BC–800s AD
The province of Macedonia within the Roman Empire, circa 125
Capital	Thessalonica in Late Antiquity: Thessalonica (Prima) Stobi (Salutaris)[1]
Historical era	Antiquity
• Established	146 BC
• Remaining territory transformed into theTheme of Thessalonica	800s AD
Preceded by Succeeded by Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Thessalonica (theme) Strymon (theme) Dyrrhachium (theme) Hellas (theme)
Today part of	Greece North Macedonia Albania Bulgaria

During theRepublican period, the province was of great military significance, as the main bulwark protecting theAegean region from attacks from the north. TheVia Egnatia, which crossed the province from west to east was of great strategic importance, providing the main overland link between Rome and its domains in the Eastern Mediterranean. In this period, campaigns against theDardani andScordisci to the north and theThracians to the east were nearly constant. By the first century BC, the province notionally extended to theDanube.

Macedonia was a central theatre for several campaigns of thecivil wars at the end of the Republic, including theBattles of Pharsalus andPhilippi. During theSecond Triumvirate, it fell withinMarc Antony's sphere. Several importantRoman military colonies were established in Macedonia in this period. After the province came under the control ofAugustus following theBattle of Actium in 30 BC, the northern sections were split off as the provinces ofMoesia,Dalmatia andPannonia, meaning that the province lost much of its military role in defending the Danube border, but it remained important for supply purposes and as a source of military manpower. Until AD 15 and again after AD 44, Macedonia was asenatorial province, governed by aproconsul.

Throughout theImperial period, Macedonia was a prosperous region with several thriving cities, notablyThessalonica andPhilippi. These communities were organised in a similar way to other cities of the Roman Empire and were largely self-governing.Greek was the main language of the region, butLatin was used for official purposes and in the Roman colonies. There were substantialChristian communities in the province by the mid-first century AD.

Inlate antiquity, the province was split into several smaller units, but the old provincial capital, Thessalonica, became the regional centre for the Balkan region and was briefly an Imperial capital underLicinius. The provincial system gradually faded away, until it was replaced altogether by thetheme system in the mid-seventh century AD, but the region continued to form part of theEastern Roman Empire until the end of the fourteenth century.

The Romans clashed with the Macedonian kingdom in three wars in the early third century BC. After defeatingPerseus in theThird Macedonian War, Rome abolished the Macedonian monarchy and divided Macedon into four client republics, calledmerides, with capitals located atAmphipolis,Thessalonica,Pella, andPelagonia,^[5] which were members of a federal league, theLeague of the Macedonians.^[6] Numismatic evidence indicates that the cult ofRoma was introduced at this time, being depicted on coins ofAmphipolis,Pella, andThessalonica in this period.^[7]Thessaly had been separated from the Macedonian monarchy already, following theSecond Macedonian War and a separateThessalian League was created with Roman permission in 194 BC, withZeus Eleutherius ('of Freedom') andAthena Itonia as its patron deities. Its coinage superseded that of the individual Thessalian cities and continued until the end of the first century BC.^[8][9]

The kingdom was briefly reunited in 150 BC by the pretenderAndriscus (or 'Pseudo-Philip'), leading to theFourth Macedonian War. After defeating Andriscus nearPydna in 148 BC,Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus made Macedonia into Rome's fifthprovincia - the first new province since the creation ofHispania Ulterior andCiterior in 197 BC.^[10][11] Surviving sources do not explicitly discuss how or why it was decided to convert the region into a permanent province.^[12] A number of factors may have been involved, including increased familiarity with territorial expansion, the proven failure of the previous system to maintain the peace, the desire for a new base from which further military expeditions could be undertaken in order to acquire booty andtriumphs, and the desire for further tax revenue.^[13] The four republics continued to exist as subdivisions of the province, as did the federal league.^[14][6] The date of the establishment of the province in autumn 148 BC is indicated by theepoch date of the provincial era, but in practice it may have been a gradual process.^[15]

At its creation, the province of Macedonia encompassedMacedon itself,Paeonia and parts ofIllyria,Thessaly to the south, andEpirus to the west.^[16] Notionally, the northern border ran fromLissus on the Adriatic coast, due east until it reached theHebrus river, which formed the eastern border withThrace.^[17] These borders were only loosely defined and dependent on the military competence of the governors, withCicero claiming that "for the governors of Macedonia, the borders were always the same as those marked by swords and shields."^[18][17] The capital wasThessalonica and the governor heldproconsular status.

Two years after the foundation of the new province, in 146 BC, Romans defeated theAchaean League in theAchaean War and gained control of the rest ofMainland Greece. Scholars disagree on whether or not Achaia was formally incorporated into the province of Macedonia following this defeat,^[19] but intermittent interventions in Achaian affairs by the governors are attested.^[20]

Sometime after 146 BC,Gnaeus Egnatius initiated the construction of theVia Egnatia, aRoman road, which began atDyrrhachium on theAdriatic coast opposite the terminus of theVia Appia in Italy, stretched across thePindus mountains and continued through Macedonia to Thessalonica, and from there toCypsela, on the east bank of the Hebrus river.^[21] This stretch was completed by 120 BC;^[22] it followed a pre-existing route, but was a more solid, level road than the previous road, with a width of between three and six metres.^[21] A second road from the Adriatic coast atApollonia, which joined the main Via Egnatia somewhere inland was added shortly after 120 BC.^[23] Later in the second century BC, the eastern end of the road was extended all the way to theByzantium.^[24] The road was important for military and economic purposes, providing the main overland link between Rome and its domains in the Eastern Mediterranean.^[25]

Macedonia was of central importance to Roman military strategy in this period as a bulwark against attacks from the north.^[26] TheDardani to the northwest, had initially supported the Romans in their conquest of Macedonia, but after 148 BC, they increasingly came into conflict with the Romans.^[27][28] There were also occasional conflicts with theThracians to the east.^[28] However, the key enemy of the Romans in this period were theScordisci, aCeltic group that largely supplanted the Dardanians as the most powerful group in the central Balkans.^[29] They first invaded Macedonia in 149 BC during the Fourth Macedonian War and had to be driven out by Metellus.^[30]

In the first years of the province two pretenders attempted to restore the Macedonian kingdom. The first, Alexander, invaded from Thrace in 148 BC and was defeated by Metellus. The second, referred to in the sources as 'Pseudo-Philip' or 'Pseudo-Perseus' also invaded from the east, in 143 or 142, with an army of up to 16,000 men, but was defeated by thequaestorTremellus Scrofa.^[31] The Scordisci invaded in 141 BC and defeated a Roman army commanded byDecimus Junius Silanus Manlianus^[29] or, less likely,Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica.^[31] In belated response to this defeat,Marcus Cosconius launched an attack on the Scordisci in 135 BC, defeating them in Thrace.^[29][31] The delay may have been because Roman attention was focussed on the construction of the Via Egnatia.^[31]

In 119 BC, the Scordisci invaded again, ravaging the area nearStobi. The praetorSextus Pompeius met the forces in battle and was killed, leaving his quaestorMarcus Annius to regroup and drive the Scordisci out, defeating a second invasion with the help of the Thracians.^[32][22] Following this set-back, a series of consuls were sent to Macedonia, apparently to settle the threat from the Scordisci decisively.^[33] The first of these,Quintus Fabius Maximus Eburnus arrived in 115 BC but his activities are not attested. In 114 BC, his successor,Gaius Porcius Cato launched a large-scale invasion, but he was defeated and nearly the whole army was killed.^[33] The Romans dispatched several further commanders,Gaius Caecilius Metellus Caprarius in 113 BC andMarcus Livius Drusus in 112, who inflicted defeats on the Thracians and the Scordisci respectively.^[33] From 110 to 107 BC,Marcus Minucius Rufus campaigned against the Scordisci and the Bessian tribe of Thracians to the east, bringing an end to their raids for about twenty years.^[22][33]

After this, the Romans turned their attention to the eastern border. The Romans defeated some Thracians under an unnamed commander in 104 BC.^[22] In 101 or 100 BC,Titus Didius conquered an area referred to as the "Caenic Chersonese" (exact location unknown, but some region of the Thracian coast).^[22][34] Another unnamed commander defeated theMaedian Thracians in the east and the Dardanians in the northwest in 97 BC.^[35][36]Gaius Sentius was defeated by the Maedi in 92 BC and was involved in a conflict with a Thracian king calledSordinus in 89 BC, only achieving victory after a struggle.^[35][36] From 87 BC onwards, Thracian forces allied withMithridates VI attacked Macedonia, as part of theFirst Mithridatic War.^[36] In that year, Gaius Sentius' legateQuintus Bruttius Sura repulsed an invasion from the Mithridatic generalArchelaus.^[37] In 84 BC a force of Scordisci, Dardianians and Maedi penetrated all the way toDelphi and sacked the sanctuary, before they were violently expelled byLucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus (consul 83 BC).^[38][36]

In the aftermath of the Mithridatic Wars, the Romans again launched a concerted military effort in the region. Before the war, governors had tended to bepraetors orpropraetors, usually in office for a single year. Henceforth, they wereconsuls orproconsuls and often held command for several years.^[39]Appius Claudius Pulcher had some success in theRhodope Mountains in 77 BC,^[40] but was replaced after his death from illness byC. Scribonius Curio, who was given a force of fivelegions. He campaigned from 75 to 74 BC, becoming the first Roman commander to lead an army to theDanube and reduced the Dardanians to submission.^[40][36] Between 73 and 71 BC,Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus led another force of five legions against the Bessi and enteredMoesia, bringing the Greek cities on the west coast of theBlack Sea under Roman control and campaigning against theGetae all the way to the mouth of the Danube.^[41][36] These campaigns were intended to secure the northern border so that Macedonia and Greece would no longer be threatened by raids and to put Rome in a better position to confront Mithridates VI in future conflicts.^[36] Efforts to consolidate these enormous conquests continued for decades,^[42] often meeting with rebuffs, most notably the two campaigns ofGaius Antonius Hybrida in the north ca. 62-61 BC, in which he was defeated disastrously by the Dardianians and at theBattle of Histria by theBastarnae.^[43][42]

The governorship ofLucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus from 57 to 55 BC is the subject ofCicero'sIn Pisonem, in which Caesoninus is accused of corruption, abuse, and murder of the provincials on a grand scale, as well as shaving sparked another invasion by the Dardianians and Bessi that even placed Thessaloniki under siege, but the speech may not give an accurate picture of Caesoninus' conduct.^[44]

Macedonia was one of the main arenas of the civil wars at the end of the Roman Republic.^[45] WhenJulius Caesar crossed theRubicon in 49 BC, startingCaesar's Civil War, his opponents, led byPompey abandoned Italy and retreated to Macedonia with five legions. Around two hundredSenators set themselves up in Thessalonica as a Senate in exile and raised a further legion from veterans in Macedonia and Crete.^[45] At the beginning of 48 BC, Caesar crossed the Adriatic and besieged Pompey at Dyrrhachium. During this period, one Menedemos came to Caesar as a delegate from "the part of the province that was called free" offering him support; he was subsequently captured by Pompey's forces and executed.^[46][47] After several months, Pompey broke out of Dyrrhachium and headed southeast toward Thessaly.^[45] On the march he was met by another Macedonian, Acornion of Dionysiopolis, who came offering an alliance withBurebista, the king ofDacia.^[47] However, this offer had come too late to be of use to Pompey. Caesar decisively defeated him at theBattle of Pharsalus in August 48 BC and he fled forEgypt.^[48] On taking control of the province, Caesar separated it from Greece to the south for the first time. This division was reversed after his death in 44 BC, but would be revived in the Imperial period.^[49]

After theassassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, the assassins, led byBrutus andCassius, also fled east. Caesar's former lieutenant,Mark Antony passed a law requiring the governor,Quintus Hortensius Hortalus to hand the province over to Antony. Instead, he chose to place the province under Brutus' control - a move that was recognised by the Senate in 43 BC. This led Mark Antony to ally withOctavian in theSecond Triumvirate andinvade Macedonia, defeating Brutus and his forces at theBattle of Philippi in 42 BC.^[50]

After Philippi, Macedonia fell within the territories assigned to Mark Antony and it was governed by hislegates untilwar broke out between Octavian and Antony in 32 BC and Antony was defeated in 31 BC at theBattle of Actium, after which Macedonia and the rest of the Eastern Mediterranean came under Octavian's control, marking the beginning of thePrincipate.^[50]

Following Actium, Octavian entrusted Macedonia to the proconsulM. Licinius Crassus, grandson ofCrassus the triumvir, who led a campaign into the north that lasted until 27 BC, finally subjugating the whole region south of the Danube, for which he was granted a triumph.^[51][52]

In theAugustan Settlement of 27 BC, provinces were divided into two categories: imperial provinces, which fell were governed bylegates appointed by the Emperor, and senatorial provinces, which continued to be governed by senators who had previously served as consuls or praetors. Most of the provinces with a large military presence on the borders of the empire were Imperial provinces, but Macedonia was anomalous in being a senatorial province despite its military significance. The territories south ofThermopylae and theCeraunian Mountains now became the separate province ofAchaia.^[52] This province included the territory which would become the province ofEpirus (laterEpirus Vetus) under EmperorTrajan.^[53]

Moesia was split off as a separate military command some time before 10 BC, and had become a separate province by AD 6.^[53] Territories to the northwest of Macedonia in Illyricum were separated off into the provinces ofDalmatia andPannonia.^[52] In AD 15, complaints about the corruption of the governors ledTiberius to convert Macedonia and Achaia into imperial provinces, under the control of the governor of Moesia,^[54] butClaudius made them both Senatorial provinces once more in AD 44^[55][56] In the same year, the portion of Macedonia between the Hebrus andNestus rivers in the east and the island ofThasos were handed over to the newly created province ofThrace.^[57]

The establishment of new provinces to the north and the consolidation of Roman control in theBalkans in general led to a decline in the military importance of Macedonia to Rome, as the legions defending the northern border were henceforth based in Dalmatia, Moesia, and Thrace.^[58] Nevertheless, the province continued to provide a vital role in the transport of supplies from Italy to the northern and eastern borders of the Empire, as well as serving as a source of manpower.^[57]

The cities of the province had a range of different statuses. SixRoman colonies (coloniae) were established in the Triumviral period:Cassandrea, established in the late 40s BC by the proconsul Quintus Hortensius Hortalus, Philippi (Colonia Iulia Augusta Philippensis) founded by Antony's legateQuintus Paquius Rufus,Dium,Pella,Byllis, and Dyrrhachium.^[59][57] These communities were settled with veterans who became or remainedRoman citizens. Local inhabitants of these communities were not expelled, but they did not receive citizenship of the new colonies or of Rome, except perhaps for some members of the local elite. Some scholars have suggested that thesecoloniae formed "double communities," with the old Greek city-state (polis) and the newcolonia existing side-by-side. This now seems unlikely, but has not been disproven.^[59]Stobi was amunicipium.Amphipolis,Thessalonica,Abdera, andMaroneia held the status of 'free cities' (civitates liberae), andEdessa was probably an 'allied city' (civitas foederata).^[60]

In the Republican period a cult of "the Roman Benefactors" (Rhomaioi euergetai), thegoddess Roma, andZeus "Eleutherios" ("of freedom") developed in Macedonia. This cult is first attested in 95 or possibly 119 BC, but probably dates back to the establishment of the province. It endured in the Imperial period.^[61] TheRoman Imperial cult was introduced under Augustus, with numismatic and epigraphic evidence attesting to the worship ofJulius Caesar asDivus Julius following Actium. UnderTiberius, cults of Augustus and ofLivia are attested as well, while divine honours forCaligula and subsequent emperors are attested during their own lifetimes.^[62]

The cities of Macedonia were arranged into the League of the Macedonians (Greek:koinon ton Makedonon), with its seat atBeroea.^[63] This league was a continuation of an institution first attested underPhilip V.^[64] From 27 BC, they used their own "Macedonianera," in which the years were counted from the Battle of Actium in 31/30 BC.^[65] In the Imperial period, its main duties related to the Imperial cult, especially the organisation of games in honour of the emperors. It also hosted a local version of theOlympic games, and from AD 229, games in honour ofAlexander the Great.^[64] From the time of the emperorClaudius until the end of the second century AD, the league minted its own coinage, with the thunderbolt, a traditional symbol of Macedon on the reverse. In the third century AD, the league continued to mint coinage, but with new types, relating to athletic competition.^[64] Through this institution, Macedonian identity and loyalty to the Roman emperor were closely aligned.^[64]

There was a separate civic league for theThessalians.

The reforms ofDiocletian around AD 293 saw provinces replaced bydioceses andpraetorian prefectures as the first order subdivision of the Roman Empire and provinces began to be split into smaller units. The province of Macedonia was initially part of theDiocese of Moesia, but subsequently became part of a newDiocese of Macedonia (administered from Thessaloniki), one of three dioceses comprising thepraetorian prefecture of Illyricum (administered fromSirmium until 379, then from Thessaloniki). Meanwhile, the province of Macedonia was divided into a number of smaller provinces.

• Epirus Nova ("New Epirus") orIllyria Graeca^[67][68][69] orIllyris proper, which was established by Diocletian, was the first province to be divided off.^[70][71]Dyrrachium (orEpidamnus) was the capital.^[72] The region ofEpirus Nova corresponded^[73] to a portion ofIllyria that was then "partly Hellenic and partlyHellenized".^[74]
• Macedonia Prima ("First Macedonia"), encompassing most of theKingdom of Macedonia, coinciding with most of the modern Greek region ofMacedonia, and hadThessalonica as its capital.
• Macedonia Salutaris ("Wholesome Macedonia"), also known asMacedonia Secunda ("Second Macedonia"), partially encompassing bothPelagonia andDardania and containing the whole ofPaeonia. The province mostly coincides with the present-dayNorth Macedonia. The town ofStobi located to the junction of theCrna Reka andVardar rivers, the former capital of Paeonia, became the provincial capital.
• Thessalia encompassed the area ofancient Thessaly, in the south ofancient Macedonia and was subdivided into Thessalia Prima and Thessalia Secunda.

When the Prefecture of Macedonia was divided between theWestern andEastern Empires in 379, the Macedonian provinces were included inEastern Illyricum. With the permanent division of the Empire in 395, Macedonia passed to theEastern Empire.

The reign ofAugustus (27 BC–14 AD) began a long period of peace, prosperity and wealth for Macedonia, although its importance in the economic standing of the Roman world diminished when compared to its neighbor,Asia Minor.

The economy was greatly stimulated by the construction of theVia Egnatia during 130s and 120s BC, the installation of Roman merchants in the cities, and the founding of Roman colonies. The Imperial government brought, along with its roads and administrative system, an economic boom, which benefited both the Roman ruling class and the lower classes. With vast arable and rich pastures, the great ruling families amassed huge fortunes in the society based on slave labor.

The improvement of the living conditions of the productive classes brought about an increase in the number artisans and craftspeople to the region. Stonemasons, miners, blacksmiths, etc. were employed in every kind of commercial activity and craft. Greek people were also widely employed as tutors, educators and doctors throughout the Roman world.

The export economy was based essentially on agriculture and livestock, while iron, copper, and gold along with such products as timber, resin, pitch, hemp, flax, and fish were also exported. Another source of wealth was the kingdom's ports, such asThessalonica andCassandreia.^{[75][better source needed]}

• Marcus Licinius Crassus (31-27 BC)
• Marcus Primus (c.24/23 BC)^[78]
• Lucius Tarius Rufus (18-16 BC)
• Publius Vinicius (AD 2/3)
• Publius Memmius Regulus (with Achaea, between AD 31 and 37)
• Marcus Helvius Geminus (before 54)^[79]
• Marcus Julius Romulus (between 54 and 68)^[80]
• Marcus Vettius Bolanus (before 66)^[80]
• Lucius Antonius Saturninus (76/77)^[81]
• P. Tullius Varro (between 70 and 79)
• Lucius Baebius Honoratus (before 83)
• Gaius Salvius Liberalis (84/85)
• L. Cocceius Justus (c. 100)
• Q. Annius Maximus (113/114)
• M. Arruntius Claudianus (between 96 and 118)
• Octavius Antoninus (119/120)
• Lucius Varius Ambibulus (124/125)
• Junius Rufinus (between 118 and 138)
• Q. Gellius Sentius Augurinus (between 118 and 139)
• [Iul]ius [Fr]ugi (c. 138)
• Sextus Pedius Hirrutus Lucilius Pollio (c. 148)^[82]
• P. Antius Orestes (164/165)
• Publius Julius Geminius Marcianus (c. 166)
• [... A]qu[i]linus (between 139 and 180)
• Cornelius Rufus (between 161 and 180)
• Ti. Claudius Gordianus (between 187 and 192)^[83]
• Junius Rufinus (192/193)
• Marcus Antius Crescens Calpurnianus (c. 200)
• (M. Ulipus ?) Tertullianus Aquila (212/213 or 213/214)
• P. Aelius Coeranus (c. 224)
• T. Clodius Pupienus Pulcher Maximus (c. 223)
• Q ?or C(L.)? Valerius Rufrius Justus (between 220 and 230)
• P. Julius Junianus Martialianus (signo Leontius) (between 222 and 235)
• C. Caerellius (Fufidius Annius Ravus) Pollittianus (between 222 and 235)
• Dulcitius (c. 300)
• Calliopius of Antioch (362)

• Diocese of Macedonia
• Macedon
• Macedonia (region)

• Daubner, Frank (2018).Makedonien nach den Königen (168 v. Chr.–14 n. Chr.) [Macedonia after the kings, 168 BC–14 AD].Historia Einzelschriften, vol. 251. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner,ISBN 978-3-515-12038-8.
• Eckstein, Arthur M. (2010)."Macedonia and Rome, 221–146 BC". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.).A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 225–250.ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
• Errington, Robert Malcolm (1990).A History of Macedonia. Translated by Catherine Errington. Berkeley, Los Angeles, & Oxford: University of California Press.ISBN 0-520-06319-8.
• Hatzopoulos, M. B. (1996).Macedonian Institutions Under the Kings: a Historical and Epigraphic Study. Vol. 1. Athens: Research Centre for Greek and Roman Antiquity, National Hellenic Research Foundation; Diffusion de Boccard.ISBN 960-7094-90-5.
• Kremydi-Sicilianou, Sophia (2005). "'Belonging' to Rome, 'Remaining' Greek: Coinage and Identity in Roman Macedonia". In Howgego, C.; Heuchert, V.; Burnett, A. (eds.).Coinage and identity in the Roman Provinces. Oxford University Press. pp. 95–106.ISBN 978-0-19-926526-8.
• Papazoglou, F. (1979). "Quelques aspects de l'histoire de la province de Macédoine".ANRW. ii.7.1:302–369.
• Papazoglou, F. (1988).Les villes de Macédoine à l'époque romaine. Paris: École Française d'Athènes.ISBN 2-86958-014-2.
• Papazoglou, F. (1998). "Le koinon Macédonien et la province de Macédoine".Thracia.12:133–9.
• O'Sullivan, Firmin (1972).The Egnatian Way. Newton Abbot: David and Charles.ISBN 9780715356760.
• Vanderspoel, John (2010). "Provincia Macedonia". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.).A companion to ancient Macedonia. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 251–275.ISBN 978-1-405-17936-2.