TheLancashire dialect (or colloquially,Lanky) refers to theNorthern English vernacular speech of theEnglish county ofLancashire. The region is notable for its tradition of poetry written in the dialect.

Lancashire dialect
Native to	England
Region	Lancashire
Language family	Indo-European Germanic West Germanic North Sea Germanic Anglo-Frisian Anglic Lancashire dialect
Early forms	Old English Middle English (West Midlands and Northern dialects dependant on area)
Dialects	Different varieties within thedialects. The area of Lancashire over the Sands has long been seen as separate, as a Northern rather than North-Midland variety. Within the North-Midland dialects, those influenced more by the cities of Liverpool or Manchester have been distinguished.
Language codes
ISO 639-3	–
Glottolog	lanc1236
IETF	en-u-sd-gblan
Lancashire within England, showingancient extent
Coordinates:53°48′0″N2°36′0″W / 53.80000°N 2.60000°W /53.80000; -2.60000
This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

Speech example

An example of a female with a non-rhotic accent fromAccrington (Jeanette Winterson).

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Speech example

An example of a male with a non-rhotic accent fromSt Helens, formerly part of Lancashire (nowMerseyside) (Johnny Vegas).

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Lancashire emerged during theIndustrial Revolution as a major commercial and industrial region. The county encompassed several hundredmill towns and collieries and by the 1830s, approximately 85% of allcotton manufactured worldwide was processed in Lancashire.^[1] It was during this period that most writing in and about the dialect took place, when Lancashire covered a much larger area than it does today (at least from an administrative point of view—the historic county boundary remains unchanged). The administrative county was subject to significant boundary changes in 1974,^[2] which removedLiverpool andManchester with most of their surrounding conurbations to form part of themetropolitan counties of Merseyside and Greater Manchester.^[3] At this time, the detachedFurness Peninsula and Cartmel (Lancashire over the Sands) were made part ofCumbria, and theWarrington andWidnes areas became part of Cheshire.

The linguist Gerard Knowles noted that Lancashire dialect was still spoken in the city of Liverpool in 1830, before the period of mass immigration from Ireland that led the dialect of the city to change radically.^[4] Modern Liverpool speech is usually treated as a separate dialect, namedScouse. In the post-war era, migration to other towns in Merseyside, and also to thenew towns created atRuncorn,Skelmersdale andWarrington, has led to an expansion in the area in which Scouse is spoken, as the next generation acquired Scouse speech habits that often displaced the traditional Lancashire or Cheshire dialects of the area.^[5]

The area transferred in 1974 to modern Cumbria, known as "Lancashire over the sands", is sometimes also covered as in scope ofCumbrian dialect: for example,The Cumbrian Dictionary of Dialect, Tradition and Folklore was written by the Barrovian William Robinson and included this area.^[6] As there was mass migration in the 19th century to Barrow-in-Furness fromIreland,Staffordshire, theBlack Country,Scotland and nearby rural areas, it has (like Liverpool) developed adialect different from the surrounding rural area.^[6]

In recent years, some have also classified the speech of Manchester as a separateMancunian dialect, but this is a much less established distinction. Many of the dialect writers and poets in the 19th and early 20th century were from Manchester and surrounding towns.^[7]

The Lancashire dialect traditionally used rhotic pronunciation, but the accents of much of the area have become non-rhotic since the middle of the 20th century.^[8]

Alexander John Ellis, one of the first to apply phonetics to English speech, divided the county of Lancashire into four areas. Three of these four were considered North Midland in his categorisation of dialects, whereas the fourth (mostly the section that is in modern Cumbria, known as "Lancashire over the sands") was considered Northern. Dialect isoglosses in England seldom correspond to county boundaries, and an area of Lancashire could have a dialect more similar to an area of a neighbouring county than to a distant area of Lancashire.

Ellis expressly excluded the Scouse dialect of Liverpool from the areas below, although his Area 22 included some sites in modern Merseyside (e.g. Newton-le-Willows, Prescot).^[9]

Ellis often spoke of "the Lancashire U" in his work.^[10] This was similar to theʊ in other Northern and North Midland dialects but was actually a more centralisedʊ̈. In addition, the dialects he studied were allrhotic at the time of writing.

^{[notes 1]}

A number of dialect glossaries were published in the 18th and 19th Centuries, often byphilologists who were interested in the old words retained in certain dialects.

• Glossary of provincial words used in the neighbourhood of Ashton-under-Lyne, Mr. Barnes, 1846.
• Glossary of provincial words used in the neighbourhood of Ormskirk, W Hawkstead Talbot, 1846.
• The Dialect of South Lancashire, or Tom Bobbin's Tummus and Meary; with his rhymes and an enlarged glossary of words and phrases, chiefly used by the rural population of the manufacturing districts of South Lancashire,Samuel Bamford, 1854.
• A Glossary of the Dialect of the Hundred of Lonsdale, North and South of the Sands, in the County of Lancaster; together with an essay on some leading characteristics of the dialects spoken in the six northern counties of England (ancient Northumbria), JC Atkinson, 1869.
• A Glossary of the Words and Phrases of Furness (North Lancashire), RB Peacock, London Phil. Soc. Trans., 1869.
• A Glossary of Rochdale-with-Rossendale Words and Phrases, H Cunliffe, 1886.
• A Blegburn Dickshonary, J Baron, 1891.
• A Grammar Of The Dialect Of Adlington (Lancashire), Karl Andrew Hargreaves, 1904.
• A Grammar Of The Dialect Of Oldham (Lancashire), Karl Georg Schilling, 1906.

Of these, only the works on Oldham and Adlington contain any phonetic notation, and this was in a slightly different code to the modernIPA.

Led byHarold Orton at theUniversity of Leeds, theSurvey of English Dialects surveyed 313 sites across England, the Isle of Man and some bordering areas of Wales in the 1950s and early 1960s. The Survey recorded the dialect used in fourteen sites in Lancashire. These sites were mostly rural. A second phase, researching more urban areas, had been planned from the outset but financial problems meant that this second phase never occurred and the Survey's coverage was mostly confined to rural parts of England.^[17]

The fieldworkers for the sites wereStanley Ellis and Peter Wright.^[18] The latter was a native of Fleetwood and wrote his PhD on the dialect, using his father as the principal informant.^[19] In 1981, Wright published a bookThe Lanky Twang: How it is spoke that explained the dialects of Lancashire through a series of illustrations, often humorous.^[20]

The table below shows the sites as reported in Book 1 of the Survey's outputs for the northern counties.^[21]

There were several other monographs written by dialectologists by Harold Orton's department at the University of Leeds, including some urban areas such asBury,Middleton,St. Helens andSouthport. These are now contained in the Archive of Vernacular Culture at the Brotherton Library in Leeds.^[22]

The site of Harwood (La12) was later included in the UNESCO-fundedAtlas Linguarum Europae.^[23] The results of this survey have attracted little attention.^[24]

Graham Shorrocks, a linguist fromFarnworth, conducted a series of research projects on the dialect of the Bolton area. These were consolidated into two linked books namedA Grammar of the Dialect of the Bolton Area, published in 1998 and 1999.

In addition, the Harwood area of Bolton, which had been a site in the Survey of English Dialects, was made into a site for the Europe-wide linguistic projectAtlas Linguarum Europae.^[25]

John C. Wells, who grew up inUp Holland,^[26][27] made some passing comments on Lancastrian speech (mostly on the southern parts of the county) in his 1982 series of books,Accents of English.

• In central Lancashire, words such ascoal andhole are pronounced with the[ɔɪ] vowel, giving[kɔɪl] and[ɔɪl].^[28]
• In southern parts of Lancashire such as the Bolton and Oldham areas, the MOUTH vowel is[ɘʏ] or[ʌʏ]. This can be heard clearly in the pronunciation of the word 'roundabout' in these areas.^[29]
• In much of the area around Manchester, the GOOSE vowel is fronted[ʏ:].^[29]
• The lexical sets for NURSE and SQUARE are both realised with the same vowel[ɜ:].^[30] This is known as thesquare–nurse merger, although (as in most of the North of England) many NURSE words are pronounced with a short schwaə so thatcurse is pronouncedkəs in non-rhotic areas.^[31]
• The final vowel in words such ashappy andcity is a short[ɪ] rather than the[i:] of most other English dialects.^[32]
• The wordone is usually pronounced[wɔn] rather than the[wʌn] of Received Pronunciation or the[wʊn] in other parts of Northern England.^[32]
• In the southern half of Lancashire, there is noNG-coalescence, so words such asfinger andsinger rhyme.^[33]
• Rhoticity persists residually in some areas of Lancashire, though non-rhoticity certainly characterises the more urban areas around Liverpool, Manchester or Wigan.^[34] Rhoticity in Lancashire has been increasingly giving way to non-rhoticity since the second half of the 20th century.^[35]
• The consonantsp,t,k are usually not post-aspirated (as they are in most other dialects) in the Pennine valleys, for example around Burnley.^[36]

The linguistPeter Trudgill specified a "Central Lancashire" dialect region, defined particularly by its rhoticity, around Blackburn, Preston and the northern parts of Greater Manchester. He classified the county of Merseyside, excluding the St Helens borough and Southport, as another dialect region. Trudgill grouped most of Greater Manchester in the "Northwest Midlands" region, and grouped the non-rhotic northern parts of Lancashire in with Cumbria and most of Yorkshire in the "Central North" region.^[37]

In 2005 and 2006,^[38] the BBC, working with theUniversity of Leeds, undertook a survey of the speech of the country.^[39] The recordings are now available on the British Library's website.^[40] An accompanying book,Talking for Britain: a journey through the voices of a nation, was published in 2005; the author noted that the speech of Lancashire in 2005 differed markedly from "the impenetrable tracts of rural Lancastrian that the Survey of English Dialects found in the 1950s".^[41]

Academic analysis of the corpus of Lancashire dialect writing and poetry has continued into the 21st century. Areas of research include identifying thesyntax of the dialect,^[42][43][44] methods of oral performance,^[45][46] thelexicography of dialect words,^[47] and the relationship between dialect andsocial class in the United Kingdom.^[48][49]

Graham Shorrocks wrote that Lancashire has been the county with the strongest tradition of dialect poetry since the mid-19th century.^[50] Many of these gave commentaries on the poverty of theworking class at the time and occasional political sentiments: for example, the balladJone o Grinfilt portrayed an unemployed handloom worker who would rather die as a soldier in a foreign war than starve at home.^[51] Vicinus argued that, after 1870, dialect writing declined in quality owing to "clichés and sentimentality".^[52] Writing in 1999, Shorrocks argues that "Many dialect writers nowadays cannot speak dialect, or cannot speak it in any convincing fashion, and much of what is written seems exhausted, poor, and, crucially, detached from living speech.^[53] Lancashire dialect writing, at least in the nineteenth and the early twentieth century, often drew onLancashire folklore.

The Lancashire Authors Association was founded in 1909 and still exists for writers in the dialect, producing an annual paper calledThe Record.^[53]

Some dialect poets include:

• Benjamin Brierley (often known as Ben Brierley) (1825–1896) was a writer in Lancashire dialect; he wrote poems and a considerable number of stories of Lancashire life. He began to contribute articles to local papers in the 1850s and in 1863 he definitely took to journalism and literature, publishing in the same year hisChronicles of Waverlow.
• John Collier, writing under the nameTim Bobbin, published more than 100 editions of "A View of the Lancashire Dialect".
• Sam Fitton of Rochdale (1868–1923)
• Nicholas Freeston (1907–1978) was an English poet who spent most of his working life as a weaver in cotton mills near his home in Clayton-le-Moors, Lancashire. He published five books of poetry, occasionally writing in Lancashire dialect, and won 15 awards including a gold medal presented by the president of the United Poets' Laureate International.^[54]
• Samuel Laycock (1826–1893) was a dialect poet who recorded in verse the vernacular of the Lancashire cotton workers.
• Joseph Ramsbottom (1831–1901)
• Margaret Rebecca Lahee (10 May 1831 – 14 June 1895), was an Irish Lancashire dialect writer from the 19th century who wrote in prose rather than verse.^[55]
• Thomas Thompson was a Lancashire dialect author and BBC broadcaster. Born in Bury in 1880, he lived there all his life until his death in 1951. He published 16 books on Lancashire people and their communities, published byGeorge Allen and Unwin. In 1950, he was awarded an honorary master's degree by Manchester University for his scholarly contribution to dialect literature.
• Edwin Waugh whose most famous poem was "Come whoam to thi childer an' me", written in 1856.^[56]
• Michael Wilson of Manchester (1763–1840) and his sons Thomas and Alexander.^[57]

Dialect poets have occasionally appeared on the BBC since its establishment. Sam Smith featured on the radio in the 1920s.^[58] In the 2010s, BBC radio programmes analysed the Manchester Ballads (which featured dialect)^[59] and reported on contemporary poets that kept the tradition of dialect poetry alive.^[60][61]

In April 2011,Pendle Borough Council printed phrases from local dialect poems on stone-cube artworks in the area.^[62]

In November 2016, Simon Rennie from Exeter University announced his collection of Lancashire dialect poetry from the time of theLancashire Cotton Famine of 1861–65.^[63] He said, "It's fascinating how people turned to and used poetry, in their local languages, to express the impact events so far away were having on them."^[63]

The Lancashire Dialect Society was founded in 1951;The Journal of the Lancashire Dialect Society has included articles on the Survey of English Dialects and on the dialects of Germany, Switzerland and the United States.^[64] The society collected a library of publications relating to dialect studies which was kept at the John Rylands University Library of Manchester from 1974 onwards.^[65] This collection was afterwards taken away and deposited at the Lancashire County Library in Preston.

The Lancashire Authors' Association is devoted to the study of Lancashire literature, history, traditions and dialect.^[66] TheAssociation’s library collection was founded in Horwich in 1921 and contains dialect works by authors includingEdwin Waugh,Samuel Laycock and Teddy Ashton. The collection has been housed at public libraries across Lancashire, and was moved to theUniversity of Bolton Library in 2021.^[67]

Various newspapers in Lancashire and the magazineLancashire Life have included content relating to the Lancashire dialect. R. G. Shepherd contributed many articles interesting both for their philosophy and their excursions into local dialect toThe West Lancashire Gazette andThe Fleetwood Chronicle. Dialect has also featured inThe Bolton Journal,The Leigh Reporter andThe Lancashire Evening Post as well as in "Mr. Manchester's diary" inThe Manchester Evening News.^[68]

Between 1979 and 2015, theNorth West Sound Archive contained a range of records in Lancashire dialect (as well as Cumberland and Westmorland dialect). The Archive closed owing to financial reasons in 2015, and its materials were relocated to theManchester Central Library,Liverpool Central Library, and theLancashire Archives.^[69]

Films from the early part of the 20th century, particularly those produced byMancunian Films, often contain Lancashire dialect: the films ofGeorge Formby,Gracie Fields andFrank Randle are some examples.^[70]

The 2018 filmPeterloo used reconstructed Lancashire dialect from the early 19th century, based on the works of Samuel Bamford, who was portrayed in the film.^[71]

Similarly, in music, the Lancashire dialect is often used in regional folk songs. The folk song "Poverty Knock"^[72] is one of the best-known songs of such nature, describing life in a Lancashire cotton mill.^[73] TheHoughton Weavers is a band formed in 1975 that continues to sing in Lancashire dialect.^[74] In 1979, the Houghton Weavers presented a series on local folk music on BBC North West entitledSit thi deawn.^[75]

The bandthe Lancashire Hotpots, fromSt Helens, have also used the Lancashire dialect in their work, particularly for humor.^[76]

• Boardman, Harry & Lesley, eds. (1973)Folk Songs & Ballads of Lancashire. London: Oak PublicationsISBN 0-86001-027-9
• Kershaw, Harvey (1958)Lancashire Sings Again: a collection of original verses. Rochdale: Harvey Kershaw
• Pomfret, Joan, ed. (1969)Lancashire Evergreens: a hundred favourite old poems. Brierfield, Nelson: GerrardISBN 0-900397-02-0
• Pomfret, Joan, ed. (1969)Nowt So Queer: new Lancashire verse and prose. Nelson: Gerrard
• Just Sithabod: dialect verse from "Lancashire Life". Manchester: Whitethorn Press, 1975 (dedicated to "Lancastrians learning English as a second language")
• The Journal of the Lancashire Dialect Society (no. 15, January 1966, contains an index to no. 1–14)^[1]
• Holcroft, Fred (November 1997).Lancashire English. London: Abson Books.ISBN 0-902920-97-9.
• Elmes, Simon (September 2006).Talking for Britain. Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-102277-2.

• Aspey, Vera (1976)The Blackbird. Topic Records 12TS356
• Boardman, Harry (1973)A Lancashire Mon: ballads, songs & recitations. Topic Records, London 12TS236
• Boardman, Harry (1978)Golden Stream: Lancashire songs and rhymes. AK Records, Manchester AK 7813
• Kershaw, Mary & Harvey (1976)Lancashire Sings Again! songs & poems in the Lancashire dialect. Topic Records 12TS302
• Survey of English Dialects:recordings from Lancashire (circa 1950s)
• 20th Century Lancastrian speech
• Sound Comparisons: Rossendale

• Completely Lanky – Lancashire dialect website^[usurped]
• Trouble at mill – Lancashire dialect website
• Website dedicated to the poems and songs of Edwin Waugh
• Edwin Waugh Dialect Society ("the Objects of the Society are the Maintaining and Increasing of Interest in Lancashire Dialect")
• Website of Wigan dialect poems and phrases