TheKingdom of the Kentish (Old English:Cantwara rīce;Latin:Regnum Cantuariorum), today referred to as theKingdom of Kent, was anearly medieval kingdom in what is nowSouth East England. It existed from either the fifth or the sixth century AD until it was fully absorbed into theKingdom of Wessex in the mid-9th century and later into theKingdom of England in the early 10th century.

Kingdom of the Kentish Old English:Cantwara rīce Latin:Regnum Cantuariorum
c. 455–825
The Kingdom of Kent
Status	Independent kingdom (c. 455–764, 769–785, 796–798) Client state ofMercia (764–769, 785–796, 798–825)
Official languages	Kentish Old English
Religion	Paganism (before 7th century) Christianity (after 7th century)
Government	Monarchy
King
• ?–488	Hengist (first)
• 866–871	Æthelred (last)
Legislature	Witenagemot
Historical era	Heptarchy
• Established	c. 455
• Full integration into crown of Wessex	825
Currency	sceat,thrymsa
Preceded by Succeeded by Sub-Roman Britain Wessex

Under the precedingRomano-British administration the area of Kent faced repeated attacks from seafaring raiders during the fourth century AD. It is likely that Germanic-speakingfoederati were invited to settle in the area as mercenaries. Following the end of Roman administration in 410, further linguistically Germanic tribal groups moved into the area, as testified by both archaeological evidence and Late Anglo-Saxon textual sources. The primary ethnic group to settle in the area appears to have been theJutes: they established their Kingdom in East Kent and may initially have been under the dominion of theKingdom of Francia. It has been argued that anEast Saxon orMiddle Saxon community initially settled in West Kent and merged with the expanding kingdom of East Kent in the sixth century, but this is uncertain.

The earliest recorded king of Kent wasÆthelberht, who, asbretwalda, wielded significant influence over other Anglo-Saxon kings in the late sixth century. TheChristianization of the Anglo-Saxons began in Kent during Æthelberht's reign with the arrival of the monkAugustine of Canterbury and hisGregorian mission in 597.

Kent was one of the seven kingdoms of the so-calledAnglo-Saxon heptarchy, but it lost its independence in the 8th century when it became a sub-kingdom ofMercia. In the 9th century it became a sub-kingdom ofWessex, and in the 10th century it became part of the unifiedKingdom of England that was created under the leadership of Wessex. Its name has been carried forward ever since as thecounty ofKent.

Knowledge of Anglo-Saxon Kent comes from scholarly study of Late Anglo-Saxon texts such as theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle and theEcclesiastical History of the English People, as well as archaeological evidence such as that left by early medieval cemeteries and settlements, andtoponymical (place-name) evidence.

In theRomano-British period, the area of modern Kent that lay east of theRiver Medway was acivitas known asCantiaca.^[1] Its name had been taken from an olderCommon Brittonic place-name,Cantium ("corner of land" or "land on the edge") used in the preceding pre-Roman Iron Age, although the extent of this tribal area is unknown.^[1]

During the late third and fourth centuries, Roman Britain had been raided repeatedly byFranks,Saxons,Picts, andScots.^[2] As the closest part of Britain to mainland Europe, it is likely that Kent would have experienced many attacks from seafaring raiders, resulting in the construction of fourSaxon Shore Forts along the Kentish coast:Regulbium,Rutupiae,Dubris, andPortus Lemanis.^[2] It is also likely that Germanic-speaking mercenaries from northernGaul, known asfoederati, would have been hired to supplement official Roman troops during this period, with land in Kent as payment.^[3] Thesefoederati would have assimilated into Romano-British culture, making it difficult to distinguish them archaeologically.^[4]

There is evidence that over the fourth and early fifth centuries, rural villas were abandoned, suggesting that the Romano-British elite were moving to the comparative safety of fortified urban centres.^[5] However, urban centres also witnessed decline;Canterbury evidenced a declining population and reduced activity from the late third century onward, whileDover was abandoned by the end of the fourth century.^[6] In 407, the Roman legions left Britain in order to deal with incursions into the Empire's continental heartlands.^[2]

In 410, the Roman EmperorHonorius sent a letter to his British subjects announcing that they must thenceforth look after their own defence and could no longer rely on the imperial military to protect them.^[2]According to theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle, produced in late Anglo-Saxon England and not considered an accurate record of events in the fifth century, in 418 many Romans left Britain via Kent, taking much of their wealth with them. This may represent a memory of a genuine exodus of the Roman aristocracy.^[7]

According to archaeologist Martin Welch, the fifth century witnessed "a radical transformation of what became Kent, politically, socially and in terms of physical landscape".^[1] There has beenmuch debate as to the scale of Jutish migration; some see it as a mass migration in which large numbers of Germanic peoples left northern Europe to settle in Britain, pushing the native British population to western Britain or Brittany;others have argued that only a small warrior elite came over, dominating (or even enslaving) the Romano-British population, who then began using theOld English language andmaterial culture of the newcomers.^[8] Currently, many scholars accept that there was significant regional variation, with the former view being more applicable in the south and east and the latter in the north and west.^[9]

In Kent, archaeological and historical evidence suggests that a large-scale immigration of Germanic peoples did indeed take place.^[10] However, some of the Romano-British population likely remained, as the Roman name for the area,Cantiaca, influenced the name of the new Jutish kingdom, theCantware ("dwellers of Kent").^[11]

The Germanic migration to Britain is noted in textual sources from the late Anglo-Saxon period, most notablyBede'sEcclesiastical History of the English People and theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle; both rely onoral histories from the fifth century, and were attempts to establishorigin myths that would justify the politics of the time.^[7] According to theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle, a "king of the Britons" known asVortigern invited two Germanic leaders,Hengist and Horsa ("stallion" and "horse"), to Britain to help defend against Pictish raiders. After arriving atYpwinesfleot (Ebba's Creek, modernEbbsfleet near Ramsgate) in Kent in 449, Hengist and Horsa led the defeat of the Picts before turning on the British and inviting more Germanic tribes to colonise Britain. Among these were the Old Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes; the latter settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight, establishing the peoples known as the Cantware andWihtware.^[12]

According to theChronicle, in 455 Hengist and Horsa fought Vortigern atÆgelesthrep (probablyAylesford in Kent), in which battle Horsa was killed. Hengist succeeded him as king, followed in turn by his sonÆsc.^[13] In 456 Hengest and Æsc battled the Britons atCrecganford (probablyCrayford). The Britons then fled Kent for their London stronghold.^[13] A similar account is provided in Bede'sEcclesiastical History: that the people of Kent and Isle of Wight were descended from Jutish settlers, and that Horsa was killed in battle against the Britons, adding that his body was buried in east Kent.^[14] The accuracy of these accounts is questioned; S. E. Kelly states that "the legendary details are easy to dismiss".^[15] Scholars often view Hengist and Horsa as mythological figures borrowed from folk tradition, to legitimise rulers in the Mid-to-Late Anglo-Saxon period.^{[note 1][19]}

The incoming Germanic peoples settled on the prime agricultural land of the Romano-Britons; particularly the foothills to the north of the downs andHolmesdale south of the downs escarpment.^[20] It is likely that they complemented agriculture with animal husbandry, but with nearby coasts and rivers it is also likely that they engaged in fishing and trading.^[21] The Anglo-Saxons made use of pre-existing prehistoric and Roman road systems, with 85% of cemeteries being located within 1.2 km of a Roman road, a navigable river or the coast, and the remaining 15% being close to ancient trackways.^[22] Little archaeological evidence of these early settlements exists, but one prominent example is agrubenhaus at Lower Warbank,Keston that was built atop the site of a former Roman villa, adjacent to a Romano-British trackway through theNorth Downs.^[21] Fifth-century ceramics have also been found at a number of villa sites around Kent, suggesting reoccupation of these locations during this period.^[23]

The density of Anglo-Saxon cemeteries and artefacts in Kent in the early 5th century.^[24] is different from the more sporadic location of fifth century Anglo-Saxon cemeteries in the rest of Britain and suggest either an exceptionally heavy Anglo-Saxon settlement, or continued settlement beginning at an early date, or both. By the late 5th century there were additional Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, some of them adjacent to earlier ones, but with a large expansion in other areas, and now including the southern coast ofSussex.^[25] In East Kent, fifth century cemeteries mostly comprise solely of inhumation burials, with a distinct Kentish character. Conversely, in West Kent cemeteries suchOrpington mix cremations with inhumations, which is more typical of Saxon cemeteries north of theRiver Thames.^[26]This may suggest that West Kent at this point was independent of East Kent, and part of theKingdom of the East Saxons north of theThames Estuary.^[27]

In the sixth century the Kingdom of Kent had some relationship with theMerovingian-governedKingdom of Francia, which was then extending its influence in northwestern Europe.^[28] Textual sources suggest that Kent may have been under Merovingian control for part of this century.^[29] Archeological evidence of Frankish material culture from this period has been found in Kent, but not in other areas of lowland Britain, suggesting a trade monopoly with the Frankish kingdom.^[30]

Sixth century Kentish artefacts have been found in continental Europe, in particular in the areas of modernCharente, westernNormandy, theRhineland,Frisia,Thuringia, and southern Scandinavia. They are relatively absent between theSein and theSomme across theEnglish Channel from the Saxons in Sussex, suggesting that trade was established between particular tribal or ethnic groups rather than by geography.^[31]There is also archaeological evidence of Kentish trade links in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, and copies or imitations appearing in cemeteries further afield, in areas such asWiltshire andCambridgeshire.^[27]

Archaeological evidence suggests that at some point in the sixth century, East Kent annexed West Kent.^[27]To the south lay theWeald, a dense forest of no value to the Kentish elite, leaving the fertile area west of the kingdom attractive for conquest, particularly theDarenth Valley and the dip slopes of the North Downs to the west of the Medway.^[27] During the sixth century, while the archaeological record in Kent includes items fromJutland, the dominant influence becameFrankish.^[32]

Firmly in the control of an elite class, Kent is the first Anglo-Saxon kingdom to appear in the historical record in 597.^[33] The monkBede refers to Kent as ruled byÆthelberht at this period, making him the earliest reliably attested Anglo-Saxon monarch.^[34] Bede states that Æthelberht was abretwalda who controlled everything south of theRiver Humber, including other kingdoms.^[35]TheAnglo-Saxon Chronicle refers to wars in sixth-century Britain, but most were in the west and did not affect Kent; the one exception was a battle between the Kentish and West Saxons in 568, during which Æthelberht's forces were pushed back into Kent.^[36] Æthelberht's reign also produced theLaw of Æthelberht, the oldest surviving text inOld English.^[37]

According toBede, theChristianization of Anglo-Saxon England began in Kent under Æthelberht's reign when the Benedictine monkAugustine arrived on the Ebbsfleet peninsula in 597, bringing theGregorian mission with him.^[34] Æthelberht's Frankish wife,Bertha, was already a Christian, with Æthelberht himself converting a few years later.^[34]Æthelberht's attempts to convertRædwald demonstrate the links between the Kingdom of Kent andKingdom of East Anglia, with sharedNorth Sea interests.^[38]

During this period, Anglo-Saxon kings moved around their kingdoms continually, subsisting on goods from the local populations and reciprocating with gifts.^[39]Various seventh and eighth century documents attest to the fact that Kent was governed by two kings, possibly a dominant one in the east and a subordinate in the west, perhaps reflecting the earlier divide.^[40] Trade withFrancia was extensive in the seventh and eighth centuries and appears to have been under control of thekings of Kent, through the ports ofDover,Sarre andFordwich.^[41]

This period witnessed the end of furnished burial, marked archaeologically by less regional distinctiveness of grave goods and more artefacts decorated in theSalin Style II motifs.^[42] It also saw the emergence of elite burials with far greater wealth than others; notable Kentish examples have been found atSarre Anglo-Saxon cemetery and the Kingston Barrow cemetery, while the eliteTaplow burial in modernBuckinghamshire also contained Kentish characteristics, suggesting a potential Kentish influence in that region.^[43]

In the seventh century, Kent's power waned as that ofMercia andNorthumbria grew,^[44] but it remained the fourth wealthiest kingdom in England, according to theTribal Hidage with 15,000hides of land recorded in the seventh or eighth century.^[45] However the period was tumultuous for the Kentish royal family; Kent was ruled byEcgberht from 664 to 673, but between 664 and 667 two royal cousins,Æthelred and Æthelberht, were killed atEastry royal hall, perhaps because they were a threat to Ecgberht.^[46] Ecgberht was succeeded by his brother,Hlothere, who ruled from 674 to 686 before being overthrown and killed by one of Ecgberht's sons,Eadric, who had allied with the South Saxons; Eadric then ruled until 687.^[46]

In the late seventh century, Kent gradually came to be dominated by Mercia. There had been a Kentish royal hall and reeve inLundenwic until at least the 680s, but the city then passed into Mercian hands.^[44] The loss of Lundenwic probably broke Kent's monopoly on cross-Channel trade and its control of the Thames, eroding its economic influence.^[46] According to Bede's later account, in 676 the Mercian kingÆthelred I led an attack that destroyed many Kentish churches.^[47] Mercia's control of Kent increased in the following decades; by 689–690 East Saxon kings under Mercian overlordship were active in West Kent, and there are records attesting that Æthelred arbitrated on the income of the Christian communities atMinster-in-Thanet andReculver, indicating strong Mercian control over the east of the kingdom too.^[46]

In 686 Kent was conquered byCædwalla of Wessex; within a year, Cædwalla's brotherMul was killed in a Kentish revolt, and Cædwalla returned to devastate the kingdom again. After this, Kent fell into a state of disorder. TheMercians backed aclient king namedOswine, but he seems to have reigned for only about two years, after whichWihtred became king. Wihtred, famous for theLaw of Wihtred, did a great deal to restore the kingdom after the devastation and tumult of the preceding years, and in 694 he made peace with theWest Saxons by paying compensation for the killing of Mul.

Records of Kent following the death of Wihtred in 725 are fragmented and obscure. For forty years, two or even three kings typically ruled simultaneously. This division may have made Kent the first target of the rising power ofOffa of Mercia: in 764, he gained supremacy over Kent and ruled it throughclient kings. By the early 770s, it appears that Offa was attempting to rule Kent directly, and a rebellion followed. A battle was fought atOtford in 776, and although the outcome is unknown, records of following years suggest that the rebels prevailed;Egbert II and laterEalhmund seem to have ruled independently of Offa for nearly a decade thereafter. This did not last, however, as Offa firmly re-established his authority over Kent in 785.

Religious centres of this period,minsters containing a church, were often far larger than lay settlements, with access to many resources and trade links;^[48] the Minster-in-Thanet was recorded as possessing three trade ships.^[49]

The seventh century saw the reintroduction of masonry in Anglo-Saxon England, primarily for churches.^[49] The earliest churches in the region have been termed the "Kentish Group" and reflect both Italian and Frankish influences in their design; early examples include St Pancras, St Mary, and St Peter and St Paul, all part ofSt. Augustine's monastery in Canterbury, as well as St. Andrews inRochester and St Mary inLyminge.^[50]

In the late seventh century, the earliestcharters appear, giving estate boundaries,^[51] and showing reclamation of land, for use by livestock, from theWantsum Channel andRomney Marsh.^[52] The Ebbsfleetwatermill near Gravesend in West Kent, dated to circa 700, also reflects new uses of the landscape.^[52]

Canterbury grew into the economic and political centre of Kent during the seventh century, as evidenced by rubbish pits, metalworking, timber halls, and sunken-feature buildings from the period.^[53] Intensive development was also present at Dover,^[54] and possibly at Rochester, although archaeological evidence is lacking.^[55] It is known that both Canterbury and Rochester were the home to major mints in this period, primarily producing silversceattas.^[55] This suggests that from the seventh century onward, kings in Kent were establishing control over the kingdom's economic structure.^[56]

During the eighth and ninth centuries, a number of fortified earthworks, most notablyWansdyke andOffa's Dyke, were constructed as barriers between the warring kingdoms; theFaestendic passing through theCray Valley and the routeway that has since become theA25 were likely Kentish earthworks of this period designed to protect the kingdom.^[57] Evidence for such militarisation might also be seen in the Rochester Bridge burdens, documented from the 790s, which lay out the obligation for the Roman bridge across the River Medway to be maintained, which would be vital for allowing Kentish troops to cross the river.^[57]

After King Ealhmund presumably died shortly after witnessing a charter in 784, his sonEgbert was driven out of Kent and into exile by Offa of Mercia. It is clear from charters that Offa was in control of Kent by 785. Rather than just acting as overlord of his new possession, he attempted to annex it or at least reduce its importance by creating a new diocese in Mercia atLichfield, possibly because the archbishop of CanterburyJænberht refused to crown his sonEcgfrith. Jænberht resigned a part of his bishopric and the pro-Mercian Hygeberht was chosen by King Offa to replace him "through enmity conceived against the venerable Jænberht and the Kentish people", according to Offa's eventual successorCoenwulf. In 796 Offa died, and in this moment of Mercian weakness a Kentish rebellion underEadbert Praen temporarily succeeded. Offa's eventual successor, Coenwulf, reconquered Kent in 798, however, and installed his brotherCuthred as king. After Cuthred's death in 807, Coenwulf ruled Kent directly.

Mercian authority was replaced by that ofWessex in 825, following the latter's victory at theBattle of Ellendun, and the Mercianclient kingBaldred was expelled.

TheAnglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Kent was first attacked by Viking raiders in the late eighth century.^[58] Kent and southeast England would have been an attractive target because of its wealthy minsters, often located on exposed coastal locations.^[58] In 804, the nuns of Lyminge were granted refuge in Canterbury to escape the attackers, while in 811 Kentish forces gathered to repel a Viking army based on theIsle of Sheppey.^[58] Further recorded attacks occurred on Sheppey in 835, through Romney Marsh in 841, in Rochester in 842, Canterbury (Battle of Aclea) and Sandwich (Battle of Sandwich) in 851, Thanet in 853, and across Kent in 865.^[58] Kent was also attractive for its easy access to major land and sea routes.^[59] By 811, it is recorded that Vikings built fortifications on the Kentish north coast, and over-wintered their armies on Thanet in 851–852 and Sheppey in 854–855.^[59] At this point, Canterbury and Rochester still had Roman walls that could have been refurbished,^[60] but they were nevertheless attacked by the Vikings: Rochester in 842, Canterbury in 851, and Rochester again in 885, when they laid siege until it was liberated by Alfred's army.^[61]TheBurghal Hidage lists the construction of theEorpenburnam fort, possiblyCastle Toll.^[61]Hoards have been found, particularly around the West Kent coast, that might have been wealth hidden from the Vikings.^[62]

In 892, when southern England was united underAlfred the Great, Kent was on the brink of disaster. Alfred had defeatedGuthrum the Old and allowed Vikings bytreaty to settle inEast Anglia and the North East. However, otherDanes were still on the move.Haesten, a highly experienced warrior-leader, had mustered huge forces in northernFrance having besiegedParis and takenBrittany. As many as 350 Viking ships sailed fromBoulogne to the south coast of Kent in 892. Between 5000 and 10,000 men, with their families and horses, came upLimen estuary (the east-west route of theRoyal Military Canal in reclaimedRomney Marsh) and attacked a Saxon fort near St Rumwold's church,Bonnington, killing all inside. They moved on and over the next year built a fortress atAppledore. Hearing of this, Danes in East Anglia and elsewhere then rose against Alfred. They raided Kent from Appledore, razing a large settlement,Seleberhtes Cert (present-dayGreat Chart nearAshford). They moved further inland and engaged in numerous battles with the English, but after four years they gave up. Some retreated to East Anglia and others fled to northern France and settled inNormandy.

A large Viking army led byThorkell the Tallbesieged Canterbury in 1011, culminating in the pillage of the city and the eventual murder of ArchbishopAlphege, on 19 April 1012, despite Thorkell’s attempts to keep him alive to sell him for ransom.^[63]

• Finglesham Anglo-Saxon cemetery
• Kings of Kent
• Kentish Royal Legend
• Updown early medieval cemetery
  • Updown Girl
• White horse of Kent

• Anglo-Saxon Kent Electronic Database (ASKED), cemetery database from theInstitute of Archaeology