TheKanem–Bornu Empire existed in areas which are now part ofNigeria,Niger,Cameroon,Libya andChad. It was known to theArabian geographers as theKanem Empire from the 8th century AD onward and lasted as the independent kingdom ofBornu (theBornu Empire) until 1900.^[2]

Kanem Empire
c. 700–1380
Flag Coat of arms
Influence of the Kanem Empire around 1200 AD. This map illustrates the influence of the Kanem Empire during Mai Dunama Dabbalemi's reign (1203–1259). However, it is not fully accurate, as the empire reached its peak during this period, extending as far as the Zella oasis in the northern Fezzan region, within present-day Jufra district of the Libyan desert. By the late 1500s to early 1600s, under Mai Idris Alouma (1580–1603), the Kanem-Bornu Empire's influence expanded even further, covering much of the southern regions of present-day Kanem-Bornu and reaching northward into Sudan, the Darfur region of western Sudan, and the southeast Tazir (Kufra) region in the Libyan desert and the Fezzan region.
Capital	Manan (until the 12th-century) Njimi
Common languages	Daza,Teda,Kanuri,
Religion	Animism, laterSunni Islam
Government	Monarchy
King (Mai)
• c. 700	Sef
• 1085-1097	Hummay
• 1097-1150	Dunama I
• 1382–1387	Omar I
Historical era	Middle Ages
• 700	c. 700
• Invaded and forced to move, thus establishing newBornu Empire	1380
Area
[1]	777,000 km2 (300,000 sq mi)
Currency	cloth,cowrie shells, copper
Preceded by Succeeded by Toubou culture Kanuri culture Sao civilisation Bornu Empire Khormans

The Kanem Empire (c. 700–1380) was located in the present countries of Chad, Nigeria andLibya.^[3] At its height, it encompassed an area covering not only most of Chad but also parts of southern Libya (Fezzan) and easternNiger, northeastern Nigeria and northernCameroon. The Bornu Empire (1380s–1893) was a state in what is now northeastern Nigeria, in time becoming even larger than Kanem, incorporating areas that are today parts of Chad, Niger and Cameroon.^[4]

The early history of the empire is mainly known from the Royal Chronicle, orGirgam, discovered in 1851 by the German travellerHeinrich Barth. Remnant successor regimes of the empire, in form ofBorno Emirate andDikwa Emirate, were established around 1900 and still exist today as traditional states within Nigeria.

Kanem was located at the southern end of thetrans-Saharan trade route betweenTripoli and the region ofLake Chad. Besides its urban elite, it also included aconfederation ofnomadic peoples who spoke languages of theTeda–Daza group, theToubou people orBerber people^[5]

In the8th century,Wahb ibn Munabbih usedZaghawa to describe the Teda-Tubu group, in the earliest use of the ethnic name.Al-Khwarizmi also mentions the Zaghawa in the9th century, as well as the Daza-Tubu, andibn al-Nadim references the Zaghawa in the 10th century in hisAl-Fihrist^[6]

The term 'Kanem' derive from two syllables: 'Kw', which, like 'Tu' (which can also be written as 'Ta') means 'country' or 'homeland', and 'Anum' (which can also be spelled 'Anem' or 'Anwm'), meaning 'south'. Hence, the name Kanem translates to 'southern homeland' or 'southern country'. All these terms originate from the Toubou language (Dazaga-Tedaga) and both share the same meaning, making it a distinctly geographic term. During thefirst millennium, as theSahara underwentdesiccation, people speakingKanembu migrated to Kanem in the south. This group contributed to the formation of theKanuri. Kanuri traditions state the Zaghawa dynasty led a group of nomads called the Magumi.^[7]

This desiccation of the Sahara resulted in two settlements, those speaking Teda-Daza northeast of Lake Chad, and those speakingChadic languages west of the lake in Bornu andHausaland.^[8]: 164

The origins of Kanem are unclear. The first historical sources tend to show that the kingdom of Kanem began forming around 700 under thenomadic Tebu-speakingKanembu. The Kanembu were supposedly forced southwest towards the fertile lands around Lake Chad by political pressure anddesiccation in their former range. The area already possessed walledcity-states belonging to theSao civilisation. Under the leadership of theDuguwa dynasty, the Kanembu would eventually dominate the Sao, but not before adopting many of their customs.^[9] War between the two continued up to the late 16th century.

One scholar, Dierk Lange, has proposed another theory based on a diffusionist ideology. Based on the written andoral traditions of Kanem-Bornu, which place the origin of the rulingSefuwa dynasty in theNear East, Lange connects the creation of Kanem–Bornu with the departure from the collapsedNeo-Assyrian Empire c. 600 BC to the northeast of Lake Chad.^[10][11]He also proposes that the lost state ofAgisymba (mentioned byPtolemy in the middle of the2nd century) was the antecedent of the Kanem Empire.^[12] This theory has been criticized for lacking direct and clear evidence.^[13][14]

According to theDiwan salatin Barnu ("the chronicle of the kings of Bornu."), the Sefuwa kings were ethnically distinct from their subjects until the thirteenth century. With respect to the king Salmama (1176–1203) the chronicle notes: "From Sultan Sayf to him, no sultan was born black, but they were red like the Beduin Arabs."^[15]

Climate change ensured the rise of the early Kanem–Bornu Empire, asdesertification that increased the spread of the Sahara made some areas around Lake Chad unlivable, causing nomadic peoples from that area to navigate to the places where the empire would eventually be centralized.^[16] Kanem was connected via atrans-Saharan slave trade route withTripoli viaBilma in theKawar. Slaves were imported from the south along this route.^{[8]: 171 [17]}

Kanuri tradition states Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan established dynastic rule over the nomads around the 9th century throughdivine kingship.^[16] For the next millennium, theMais ruled theKanuri, which included groups such as theNgalaga, Kangu, Kayi, Kuburi, and Kaguwa, alongside Toubou tribes, including the Toumaghra, a subtribe of the Magumi.^{[8]: 165–168}

Kanuri-speakingMuslims gained control of Kanem from the Zaghawa nomads in the 9th century^{[17]: 26, 109} during a period ofethnic conflict.^[16] Kanuri legend states that Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan founded theSayfawa dynasty.^[16] The new dynasty controlled the Zaghawa trade links in the central Sahara withBilma and othersalt mines. Yet, the principal tradecommodity was slaves. Tribes to the south ofLake Chad were raided askafirun, and then transported toZawila in the Fezzan, where the slaves were traded for horses and weapons. The annual number of slaves traded increased from 1000 in the 7th century to 5000 in the 15th.

Kanem is mentioned as one of three great empires in theSudan region, byYa'qubi in 872. He describes the kingdom of "the Zaghāwa who live in a place called Kānim", which included severalvassal states. "Their dwellings are huts made of reeds and they have no towns." Living asnomads, theircavalry gave them military superiority. In the 10th century, al-Muhallabi mentions two towns in the kingdom, one of which wasMānān. Their king was considered divine, believing he could "bring life and death, sickness and health". Wealth was measured inlivestock, sheep, cattle, camels and horses. Fromal-Bakri in the 11th century onwards, the kingdom is referred to asKanem. In the 12th centuryMuhammad al-Idrisi described Mānān as "a small town without industry of any sort and little commerce".Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi describes Mānān as the capital of the Kanem kings in the 13th century and Kanem as a powerful Muslim kingdom.^[18][7][8]

According toRichmond Palmer, it was customary to have "the Mai sitting in a curtained cage calledfanadir,dagil, ortatatuna... a large cage for a wild animal, with vertical wooden bars."^[19]

MaiHummay began his reign in 1075 and formed alliances with several tribes, including the Kay, Dabir, as well as various subtribes of the Magomi (Maghiya) such as the Alala, Tchiroua, Tumagra, Kouri, and many others—all part of the larger Magomi tribal domain, which falls within the broader Toubou territory. The Alala, Tchiroua, Tumagra, and other subtribes of Maghiya descent were from the royal ruling elites who governed the Kanem-Bornu kingdoms. Mai Hummay himself was from the Maghiya, also known as the Sefawa, meaning 'descendants of their ancestor Sef.' The suffix "wa" in Toubou (Tedaga-Dazaga) signifies 'descendants of,' and they are also referred to as Banu Sef (descendants of Sef) in Arabic. All the Magumi tribes were aristocratic and part of the Toubou, the founders of the Kanem-Bornu kingdoms. He became the first Muslim king of Kanem, having been converted by his Muslim tutorMuhammad Mānī. They remained nomadic until the 11th century, when they fixed their capital atNijmi.^{[20][21][22][7][8]: 170–172}

Humai's successor,Dunama I (1098–1151), performed theHajj three times before drowning atAidab. At this time, the army included 100,000 horsemen and 120,000 soldiers.^{[8]: 172 [19]: 91, 163 [17]: 35}

Kanem's expansion peaked during the long and energeticreign ofMaiDunama Dabbalemi (r. c. 1203–1259). Dabbalemi initiated diplomatic exchanges withsultans inNorth Africa, sending agiraffe to theHafsid monarch and arranged for the establishment of amadrasa ofal-Rashid inCairo to facilitate pilgrimages to Mecca. During his reign, he declaredjihad against the surrounding tribes and initiated an extended period of conquest with his cavalry of 41,000. He fought theBulala for seven years, seven months, and seven days. After dominating the Fezzan, he established a governor atTraghan and delegated military command amongst his sons. As the Sayfawa extended control beyond Kanuri tribal lands, fiefs were granted to military commanders, ascima, or 'master of the frontier'. Civil discord was said to follow his opening of the sacred Mune.^{[17]: 52–58 [19]: 92, 179–186 [8]: 173–177 [21]: 190}

By the end of the 14th century, internal struggles and external attacks had torn Kanem apart. War with theSao brought the death of four Mai:Selemma,Kure Ghana es-Saghir,Kure Kura al-Kabir, andMuhammad I, all sons of'Abdullāh b. Kadai. Then, war with theBulala resulted in the death of four Mai in succession between 1377 and 1387:Daud Nigalemi,Uthmān b. Dawūd,Uthmān b. Idris, andAbu Bakr Liyatu. Finally, around 1387 the Bulala forcedMai Umar b. Idris to abandonNjimi and move theKanembu people toBornu on the western edge of Lake Chad.^{[8]: 179 [19]: 92–93, 195–217 [25][21]: 190–191}

But even in Bornu, the Sayfawa dynasty's troubles persisted. During the first three-quarters of the 15th century, for example, fifteen Mais occupied the throne. Then, around 1460Ali Gazi (1473–1507) defeated his rivals and began the consolidation of Bornu. He built a fortified capital atNgazargamu, to the west of Lake Chad (in present-dayNigeria), the first permanent home a Sayfawamai had enjoyed in a century. So successful was the Sayfawa rejuvenation that by the early 16th centuryMaiIdris Katakarmabe (1507–1529) was able to defeat the Bulala and retakeNjimi, the former capital. The empire's leaders, however, remained at Ngazargamu because its lands were more productive agriculturally and better suited to the raising of cattle. Ali Gaji was the first ruler of the empire to assume the title of Caliph.^{[26][20]: 159 [17]: 73 [8]: 180–182, 205 [19]: 94, 222–228}

Bornu peaked during the reign of MaiIdris Alooma (c. 1564–1596), reaching the limits of its greatest territorial expansion, gaining control over Hausaland, and the people of Ahir and Tuareg. Peace was made with Bulala, when a demarcation of boundaries was agreed upon with anon-aggression pact.^[27] Military innovations included the use of mounted Turkish musketeers, slave musketeers, mailed cavalrymen, footmen and feats of military engineering as seen during the siege of the fortified town of Amsaka. This army was organized into an advance guard and a rear reserve while often using shield wall methods as well.^[28] The Bornu army was transported via camel or large boats and fed by free and slave women cooks, and often employed ascorched earth policy if necessary for the conquest of fortified towns and other strongholds.Ribāts were built on frontiers, and trade routes to the north were secure, allowing relations to be established with thePasha of Tripoli and theTurkish empire. Between 1574 and 1583, the Borno sultan had diplomatic relations with the Ottoman sultan Murad III, as well as with the Moroccan sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, in the context of political tensions in the Sahara. The Borno sultan allied with the Moroccan sultan against the Ottoman imperialism in the Sahara.^[29]Ibn Furtu called AloomaAmir al-Mu'minin, after he implementedSharia, and relied upon largefiefholders to ensure justice.^{[8]: 207–212, 497–500 [21]: 190–191 [20]: 159 [19]: 94, 234–243 [17]: 75}

The Lake Chad to Tripoli route became an active highway in the 17th century, with horses traded for slaves. An intense diplomatic activity has been reported between Borno and the Pachalik of Tripoli at that time.^[30] About two million slaves traveled this route to be traded in Tripoli, the largest slave market in the Mediterranean. AsMartin Meredith states, "Wells along the way were surrounded by the skeletons of thousands of slaves, mostly young women and girls, making a last desperate effort to reach water before dying of exhaustion once there."^{[20]: 159–160}

Most of the successors of Idris Alooma are only known from the meagre information provided by theDiwan. Some of them are noted for having undertaken thepilgrimage toMecca, others for their piety. In the eighteenth century, Bornu was affected by several long-lasting famines.^{[31][8]: 500–508 [19]: 94–95, 244–258} TheSultanate of Agadez was independently operating theBilma salt mines by 1750, having been a tributary since 1532.^{[7]: 292 [21]: 190–191}

The administrative reforms and military brilliance of Aluma sustained the empire until the mid-17th century when its power began to fade. By the late 18th century, Bornu rule extended only westward, into the land of theHausa of modernNigeria. The empire was still ruled by the Mai who was advised by his councilors (kokenawa) in the state council ornokena.^[32] The members of his Nokena council included his sons and daughters and other royalty (the Maina) and non-royalty (the Kokenawa, "new men"). The Kokenawa included free men and slaveeunuchs known askachela. The latter "had come to play a very important part in Bornu politics, as eunuchs did in many Muslim courts".^[33]

In the 16th-century, Turkish musketeers where imported to Bornu, and in the 17th-century, European slaves are noted to have been imported to Bornu from theBarbary slave trade in Tripoli in Libya.^[34]

During the 17th and 18th century, Bornu became a centre for Islamic learning. Borno sultans developed a political legitimacy based on their religious charisma, in the context of the rise of Sufism in Sahel.^[35] Islam and the Kanuri language was widely adopted, while slave raiding propelled the economy.^{[21]: 190–191}

By the late 18th century, Kanem-Borno faced multiple challenges that weakened its power. Its military declined due to neglect in training, preparedness, and firepower, particularly muskets, which had previously ensured victories. This military weakness led to the loss of control over vassal states, such asBagirmi, which began raiding Bornoan territories. Additionally, intensified Tuareg raids resulted in the loss of theBilma salt mines and vitalTrans-Saharan trade routes in 1759. The rising power of theWadai Sultanate further disrupted the region, causing demographic shifts that compounded Borno's instability. These issues culminated in the 19th century Jihad movement, which ultimately led to the collapse of the Saifawa Dynasty and the end of one of Africa's longest-ruling dynasties.^[36]

Around this time,Fulani people invading from the west were able to make major inroads into Bornu during theFulani War. By the early 19th century, Kanem–Bornu was clearly an empire in decline, and in 1808 Fulani warriors conqueredNgazargamu.Usman dan Fodio led theFulani thrust and proclaimed ajihad (holy war) on the irreligious Muslims of the area. His campaign eventually affected Kanem–Bornu and inspired a trend toward Islamic orthodoxy.^{[19]: 259–267 [37]}

Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi, who was of mixed Kanuri and Shuwa Arab heritage fromFezzan contested the Fulani incursions into Bornu. Al-Kanemi was a Muslim scholar who had put together an alliance of mostlyShuwa Arabs, and Kanembu within the region. He eventually built in 1814 a capital atKukawa (in present-day Nigeria). After the creation of his capital at Kukawa, Al-Kanemi quickly amassed a large following within Bornu and adopted the title ofShehu within Bornuan society and quickly supplanted the rule of the Mais who became figurehead monarchs. In the year of 1846, the lastmai, in league with theOuaddai Empire, precipitated a civil war, resulting in the death of Mai Ibrahim, the last mai. It was at that point that Kanemi's son,Umar, became Shehu, thus ending one of the longest dynastic reigns in international history. By then,Hausaland in the west, was lost to theSokoto Caliphate, while the east and north were lost to theWadai Empire.^{[38][21]: 233 [20]: 194–195 [19]: 268}

Although the dynasty ended, the kingdom of Kanem–Bornu survived. Umar eschewed the titlemai for the simpler designationshehu (from the Arabicshaykh), he could not match his father's vitality and gradually allowed the kingdom to be ruled by advisers (wazirs). Bornu began a further decline as a result of administrative disorganization, regional particularism, and attacks by the militantWaddai Empire to the east. The decline continued under Umar's sons. In 1893,Rabih az-Zubayr led an invading army from easternSudan and conquered Bornu. Rabih's invasion led to the deaths of ShehuAshimi, ShehuKyari, and ShehuSanda Wuduroma between 1893 and 1894. The British recognized Rabih as the 'Sultan of Borno', until the French killed Rabih on 22 April 1900 during theBattle of Kousséri.

The French then occupiedDikwa, Rabih's capital, in April 1902, after the British had occupied Borno in March. Yet, based on their 1893 treaty, most of Borno remained under British control, while the Germans occupied eastern Borno, including Dikwa, as 'Deutsch-Bornu'. The French did nameAbubakar, the Shehu ofDikwa Emirate, until the British convinced him to be the Shehu of the Borno Emirate. The French then named his brother, Sanda, Shehu of Dikwa. Shehu Garbai formed a new capital,Yerwa, on 9 January 1907. AfterWorld War I, Deutsch-Bornu became the BritishNorthern Cameroons.

Upon Shehu Abubakar's death in 1922,Sanda Kura became Shehu of Borno. Upon his death in 1937, his cousin, Shehu of DikwaSanda Kyarimi, became Shehu of Borno. As Vincent Hiribarren points out, "By becoming Shehu of the whole of Borno, Sanda Kyarimi reunited under his rule a territory which had been divided since 1902. For 35 years two Shehus had co-existed." In 1961, the Northern Cameroons voted to join Nigeria, effectively rejoining the territories of the kingdom of Bornu.^{[37]: 51, 63, 71, 87, 106, 133, 137, 144–145, 157, 164 [19]: 268–269} The lands of the Bornu state were thus absorbed into the newNorthern Nigeria Protectorate, in the sphere of theBritish Empire, and eventually became part of the independent state of Nigeria. A remnant of the old kingdom was (and still is) allowed to continue to exist, in subjection to the various Governments of the country as theBorno Emirate.^{[39][21]: 307, 318–319 [37]: 51}

• List of Sunni dynasties

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• Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John (1981).Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History. Cambridge.
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• Barkindo, Bawuro (1985). "The early states of the Central Sudan: Kanem, Borno and some of their neighbours to c. 1500 A.D.". In Ajayi, J.; Crowder, M. (eds.).History of West Africa. Vol. I (3rd ed.). Harlow. pp. 225–254.ISBN 0-582-64683-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Dewière, Rémi (2019). "Peace Be upon Those Who Follow the Right Way": Diplomatic Practices between Mamluk Cairo and the Borno Sultanate at the End of the Eighth/Fourteenth Century".Mamluk Cairo, a Crossroads for Embassies: Studies on Diplomacy and Diplomatics. Brill. pp. 658–684.
• Lange, Dierk (1977).Le Dīwān des sultans du Kanem-Bornu. Wiesbaden.ISBN 3-515-02392-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

• The Story of Africa: Kanem-Borno —BBC World Service
• Timeline of rulers