Jesus^[d] (c. 6 to 4BC –AD 30 or 33), also referred to asJesus Christ,^[e]Jesus ofNazareth, and manyother names and titles, was a 1st-centuryJewish preacher and religious leader.^[10] He is thecentral figure ofChristianity, theworld's largest religion. MostChristian denominations believe Jesus to bethe incarnation ofGod the Son and the awaitedmessiah, orChrist, a descendant from theDavidic line that is prophesied in theOld Testament. Virtually all modern scholars ofantiquity agree thatJesus existed historically.^[f] Accounts ofJesus's life are contained in theGospels, especially thefour canonical Gospels in theNew Testament.Academic research has yielded various views on thehistorical reliability of the Gospels and how closely they reflect thehistorical Jesus.^{[18][g][21][22]}

Jesus
TheChrist Pantocrator ofSaint Catherine's Monastery atMount Sinai, 6th century AD
Born	c.6 to 4 BC[a] Herodian kingdom,Roman Empire[5]
Died	AD 30 or 33 (aged 33 or 38) Jerusalem,Judaea, Roman Empire
Cause of death	Crucifixion[b]
Known for	Central figure ofChristianity Major prophetin Islam and inDruze Faith Manifestation of God inBaháʼí Faith
Parent(s)	Mary,Joseph[c]

Jesuswas circumcised at eight days old,was baptized byJohn the Baptist as a young adult, and after 40 days and nights of fasting in the wilderness, beganhis own ministry. He was anitinerant teacher who interpreted thelaw of God with divine authority and was often referred to as "rabbi".^[23] Jesus often debated with his fellow Jews on how to best followGod, engaged in healings, taught inparables, and gathered followers, among whomtwelve were appointed as his chosenapostles. He was arrested inJerusalem and tried by theJewish authorities,^[24] turned over to theRoman government, andcrucified on the order ofPontius Pilate, theRoman prefect ofJudaea. After his death, his followers became convinced that herose from the dead, and following his ascension, the community they formed eventually became theearly Christian Church that expanded as aworldwide movement.^[25] It is hypothesized that accounts of his teachings and life wereinitially conserved by oral transmission, which was the source of the written Gospels.^[26]

Christian theology includes the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by theHoly Spirit, wasborn of a virgin namedMary, performedmiracles, founded theChristian Church,died by crucifixion as a sacrifice to achieveatonement for sin, rose from the dead, andascended intoHeaven from where hewill return. Commonly, Christians believe Jesus enables people to be reconciled to God. TheNicene Creed asserts that Jesus willjudge the living and the dead, eitherbefore orafter theirbodily resurrection, an event tied to theSecond Coming of Jesus inChristian eschatology. The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of threepersons of theTrinity.^[h] Thebirth of Jesus is celebrated annually, generally on 25 December,^[i] asChristmas. His crucifixion is honoured onGood Friday and his resurrection onEaster Sunday. The world's most widely usedcalendar era—in which the current year isAD 2025 (or 2025CE)—is based on the approximatedate of the birth of Jesus.^[27]

In Islam, Jesus^[j] is considered themessiah and aprophet ofGod, who was sent to theIsraelites andwill return to Earth before theDay of Judgement.Muslims believe Jesus was born of the virginMary but was neither God nor a son of God. Most Muslimsdo not believe that he was killed or crucified but that Godraised him into Heaven while he was still alive.^[k] Jesus is also revered in theBaháʼí Faith,Druze andRastafari. In contrast,Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfillmessianic prophecies, was notlawfully anointed and was neither divine nor resurrected.

A typical Jew in Jesus's timehad only one name, sometimes followed by apatronymic phrase of the form "son of [father's name]", or the individual's hometown.^[28] Thus, in the New Testament, Jesus is commonly referred to as "Jesus ofNazareth".^[l] Jesus's neighbours in Nazareth referred to him as "the carpenter, the son ofMary and brother ofJames andJoses andJudas andSimon", "the carpenter's son", or "Joseph's son"; in the Gospel of John, the disciplePhilip refers to him as "Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth".

The English nameJesus, from GreekIēsous, is a rendering ofJoshua (HebrewYehoshua, laterYeshua), and was not uncommon in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus.Folk etymology linked the namesYehoshua andYeshua to the verb meaning 'save' and the noun 'salvation'.^[29] TheGospel of Matthew tells of anangel that appeared to Joseph instructing him "to name him Jesus, for he will save his people from their sins".^[30]

Since the early period of Christianity, Christians have commonly referred to Jesus as "Jesus Christ".^[31] The wordChrist was atitle or office ("the Christ"), not a given name.^[32][33] It derives from the GreekΧριστός (Christos),^[34][35] a translation of the Hebrewmashiakh (משיח) meaning 'anointed', and is usually transliterated into English asmessiah.^[36] In biblical Judaism,sacred oil was used to anoint certain exceptionally holy people and objects as part of their religious investiture.^[37]

Christians of the time designated Jesus as "the Christ" because they believed him to be the messiah, whose arrival isprophesied in theHebrew Bible and Old Testament. In postbiblical usage,Christ became viewed as a name—one part of "Jesus Christ". The termChristian (meaning a follower of Christ) has been in use since the 1st century.^[38]

The fourcanonical gospels (Matthew,Mark,Luke, andJohn) are the foremost sources for the life and message of Jesus.^[28] But other parts of the New Testament also include references to key episodes in his life, such as theLast Supper in1 Corinthians 11:23–26.^{[39][40][41][42]}Acts of the Apostles^[43] refers to Jesus's early ministry and its anticipation byJohn the Baptist.^[44][45][10] Acts 1:1–11^[46] says more about theAscension of Jesus^[47] than the canonical gospels do.^[48] In theundisputed Pauline letters, which were written earlier than the Gospels, Jesus's words or instructions are cited several times.^[49][m]

Someearly Christian groups had separate descriptions of Jesus's life and teachings that are not in the New Testament. These include theGospel of Thomas,Gospel of Peter, andGospel of Judas, theApocryphon of James, andmany other apocryphal writings. Most scholars conclude that these were written much later and are less reliable accounts than the canonical gospels.^[52][53][54]

The canonical gospels are four accounts, each by a different author. The authors of the Gospels are pseudonymous, attributed by tradition to thefour evangelists, each with close ties to Jesus:^[55] Mark byJohn Mark, an associate ofPeter;^[56]Matthew by one of Jesus's disciples;^[55]Luke by a companion ofPaul mentioned in a few epistles;^[55] and John by another of Jesus's disciples,^[55] the "beloved disciple".^[57]

According to theMarcan priority, the first to be written was the Gospel of Mark (written AD 60–75), followed by the Gospel of Matthew (AD 65–85), the Gospel of Luke (AD 65–95), and the Gospel of John (AD 75–100).^[58] Most scholars agree that the authors of Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source for their gospels. Since Matthew and Luke also share some content not found in Mark, many scholars assume that they used another source (commonly called the "Q source") in addition to Mark.^[59]

One important aspect of the study of the Gospels is theliterary genre under which they fall. Genre "is a key convention guiding both the composition and the interpretation of writings".^[60] Whether the gospel authors set out to write novels, myths, histories, or biographies has a tremendous impact on how they ought to be interpreted. Some recent studies suggest that the genre of the Gospels ought to be situated within the realm of ancient biography.^[61][62][63] Although not without critics,^[64] the position that the Gospels are a type of ancient biography is the consensus among scholars today.^[65][66]

Concerning the accuracy of the accounts, viewpoints run the gamut from considering theminerrant descriptions of Jesus's life,^[67] to doubting whether they are historically reliable on a number of points,^[68] to considering them to provide very little historical information about his life beyond the basics.^[69][70] According to a broad scholarly consensus, theSynoptic Gospels (the first three—Matthew, Mark, and Luke) are the most reliable sources of information about Jesus.^[71][72][28]

Matthew, Mark, and Luke are known as the Synoptic Gospels, from the Greekσύν (syn, 'together') andὄψις (opsis, 'view'),^[73][74][75] because they are similar in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure, and one can easily set them next to each other and synoptically compare what is in them.^[73][74][76] Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John.^[77] While the flow of many events (e.g., Jesus's baptism,transfiguration, crucifixion and interactions with hisapostles) are shared among the Synoptic Gospels, incidents such as the transfiguration and Jesus's exorcising demons^[78] do not appear in John, which also differs on other matters, such as theCleansing of the Temple.^[79]

The Synoptics emphasize different aspects of Jesus. In Mark, Jesus is theSon of God whose mighty works demonstrate the presence ofGod's Kingdom.^[56] He is a tireless wonder worker, the servant of both God and man.^[80] This short gospel records a few of Jesus's words or teachings.^[56] The Gospel of Matthew emphasizes that Jesus is the fulfilment of God's will as revealed in the Old Testament, and the Lord of the Church.^[81] He is the "Son of David", a "king", and the Messiah.^[80][82] Luke presents Jesus as the divine-human saviour who shows compassion to the needy.^[83] He is the friend of sinners and outcasts, who came to seek and save the lost.^[80] This gospel includes well-known parables, such as theGood Samaritan and theProdigal Son.^[83]

Theprologue to the Gospel of John identifies Jesus as an incarnation of the divine Word (Logos).^[84] As the Word, Jesus was eternally present with God, active in all creation, and the source of humanity's moral and spiritual nature.^[84] Jesus is not only greater than any past human prophet but greater than any prophet could be. He not only speaks God's Word; he is God's Word.^[85] In the Gospel of John, Jesus reveals his divine role publicly. Here he is theBread of Life, theLight of the World, theTrue Vine, and more.^[80]

The authors of the New Testament generally showed little interest in an absolutechronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.^[86] As stated inJohn 21:25, the Gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in Jesus's life.^[87] The accounts were primarily written as theological documents in the context ofearly Christianity, with timelines as a secondary consideration.^[88] In this respect, it is noteworthy that the Gospels devote about one third of their text to the last week of Jesus's life inJerusalem, referred to asthe Passion.^[89] The Gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, but it is possible to draw from them a general picture of Jesus's life story.^[68][86][88]

Jesus was Jewish,^[10] born toMary, wife ofJoseph.^[90] The Gospels of Matthew and Luke offer two accounts of hisgenealogy. Matthew traces Jesus's ancestry toAbraham throughDavid.^[91][92] Luke traces Jesus's ancestry throughAdam to God.^[93][94] The lists are identical between Abraham and David but differ radically from that point. Matthew has 27 generations from David to Joseph, whereas Luke has 42, with almost no overlap between the names on the two lists.^[n][95] Various theories have been put forward to explain why the two genealogies are so different.^[o]

Both Matthew and Luke describe Jesus's birth, especially that Jesus was born to a virgin named Mary inBethlehem in fulfilment ofprophecy. Luke's account emphasizes events before thebirth of Jesus and centers on Mary, while Matthew's mostly covers those after the birth and centers on Joseph.^[96][97][98] Both accounts state that Mary, was engaged to a man named Joseph, who was descended from King David and was not his biological father, and both support the doctrine of thevirgin birth of Jesus, according to which Jesus was miraculously conceived by theHoly Spirit in Mary's womb when she was still a virgin.^{[99][100][101]} At the same time, there is evidence, at least in the LukanActs of the Apostles, that Jesus was thought to have had, like many figures in antiquity, a dual paternity, since there it is stated he descended from the seed or loins of David.^[102] Bytaking him as his own, Joseph will give him the necessary Davidic descent.^[103] Some scholars suggest that Jesus hadLevite heritage from Mary, based on her blood relationship withElizabeth.^[104]

In Matthew, Joseph is troubled because Mary, his betrothed, is pregnant,^[105] but in the first ofJoseph's four dreams an angel assures him not to be afraid to take Mary as his wife because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.^[106] InMatthew 2:1–12,wise men orMagi from the East bring gifts to the young Jesus as theKing of the Jews. They find him in a house in Bethlehem.Herod the Great hears of Jesus's birth and, wanting him killed,orders the murders of male infants in Bethlehem and its surroundings. But an angel warns Joseph in his second dream, and the familyflees to Egypt—later to return and settle in Nazareth.^{[106][107][108]}

In Luke 1:31–38, Mary learns from the angelGabriel that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit.^[97][99] When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census ordered byCaesar Augustus. While there Mary gives birth to Jesus, and as they have found no room in the inn, she places the newborn in amanger.^[109] Anangel announces the birth to a group of shepherds, who go to Bethlehem to see Jesus, and subsequently spread the news abroad.^[110] Luke 2:21 tells how Joseph and Maryhave their baby circumcised on the eighth day after birth, and name him Jesus, as Gabriel had commanded Mary.^[111] After thepresentation of Jesus at the Temple, Joseph, Mary and Jesus return to Nazareth.^[97][99]

Jesus's childhood home is identified in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew as Nazareth, a town inGalilee in present-dayIsrael, where he lived with his family. Although Joseph appears in descriptions of Jesus's childhood, no mention is made of him thereafter.^[112][113] His other family members, including his mother,Mary,his four brothersJames,Joses (or Joseph),Judas, andSimon, and his unnamed sisters, are mentioned in the Gospels and other sources.^[114] Jesus's maternal grandparents are namedJoachim andAnne in theGospel of James.^[115] The Gospel of Luke records that Mary was a relative of Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist.^[116] Extra-biblical contemporary sources consider Jesus and John the Baptist to be second cousins through the belief that Elizabeth was the daughter ofSobe, the sister of Anne.^{[117][118][119]}

The Gospel of Mark reports that at the beginning ofhis ministry, Jesus comes into conflict with his neighbours and family.^[120] Jesus's mother and brothers come to get him^[121] because people are saying thathe is mentally ill.^[122] Jesus responds that his followers are his true family. In the Gospel of John, Jesus and his mother attend awedding at Cana, where he performs his first miracle at her request.^[123] Later, she follows him to his crucifixion, and he expresses concern over her well-being.^[124]

Jesus is called aτέκτων (tektōn) inMark 6:3, a term traditionally understood as carpenter but could also refer to makers of objects in various materials, including builders.^[125][126] The Gospels indicate that Jesus could read, paraphrase, and debate scripture, but this does not necessarily mean that he received formal scribal training.^[127]

The Gospel of Luke reports two journeys of Jesus and his parents inJerusalem during his childhood. They come to theTemple in Jerusalem for thepresentation of Jesus as a baby in accordance with Jewish Law, where a man namedSimeon prophesies about Jesus and Mary.^[128] When Jesus, at the age of twelve, goes missing on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem forPassover, his parentsfind him in the temple sitting among the teachers, listening to them and asking questions, and the people are amazed at his understanding and answers. Mary scolds Jesus for going missing, to which Jesus replies that he must "be in his father's house".^[129]

Thesynoptic gospels describeJesus's baptism in theJordan River andthe temptations he suffered while spending forty days in theJudaean Desert, as a preparation for hispublic ministry.^[130] The accounts of Jesus's baptism are all preceded by information aboutJohn the Baptist.^{[131][132][133]} They show John preaching penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraging the giving ofalms to the poor^[134] as he baptizes people in the area of the Jordan River aroundPerea and foretells the arrival of someone "more powerful" than he.^[135][136]

In the Gospel of Mark, John the Baptist baptizes Jesus, and as he comes out of the water he sees theHoly Spirit descending to him like a dove and a voice comes from heaven declaring him to be God's Son.^[137] This is one of two events described in the Gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", the other being theTransfiguration.^[138][139] The spirit then drives him into the wilderness where he is tempted bySatan.^[140] Jesus then begins his ministry inGalilee after John's arrest.^[141]

In the Gospel of Matthew, as Jesus comes to him to be baptized, John protests, saying, "I need to be baptized by you."^[142] Jesus instructs him to carry on with the baptism "to fulfill all righteousness".^[143] Matthew details three temptations that Satan offers Jesus in the wilderness.^[144]

In the Gospel of Luke, the Holy Spirit descends as a dove after everyone has been baptized and Jesus ispraying.^[145] Later John implicitly recognizes Jesus after sending his followers to ask about him.^[146] Luke also describes three temptations received by Jesus in the wilderness, before starting his ministry in Galilee.^[147]

The Gospel of John leaves out Jesus's baptism and temptation.^[148] Here, John the Baptist testifies that he saw the Spirit descend on Jesus.^[149][150] John publicly proclaims Jesus as the sacrificialLamb of God, and some of John's followers become disciples of Jesus.^[72] Before John is imprisoned, Jesus leads his followers to baptize disciples as well,^[151] and they baptize more people than John.^[152]

The Synoptics depict two distinct geographical settings in Jesus's ministry. The first takes place north ofJudea, in Galilee, where Jesus conducts a successful ministry, and the second shows Jesus rejected and killed when he travels to Jerusalem.^[23] Often referred to as "rabbi",^[23] Jesus preaches his message orally.^[26] Notably, Jesus forbids those who recognize him as the messiah to speak of it, including people he heals and demons he exorcises (seeMessianic Secret).^[153]

John depicts Jesus's ministry as largely taking place in and around Jerusalem, rather than in Galilee; and Jesus's divine identity is openly proclaimed and immediately recognized.^[85]

Scholars divide the ministry of Jesus into several stages. The Galilean ministry begins when Jesus returns to Galilee from theJudaean Desert after rebuffing the temptation ofSatan. Jesus preaches around Galilee, and inMatthew 4:18–20,his first disciples, who will eventually form the core of the early Church, encounter him and begin to travel with him.^[133][154] This period includes theSermon on the Mount, one of Jesus's major discourses,^[154][155] as well as thecalming of the storm, thefeeding of the 5,000,walking on water and a number of other miracles andparables.^[156] It ends with theConfession of Peter and the Transfiguration.^[157][158]

As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in thePerean ministry, he returns to the area where he was baptized, about a third of the way down from theSea of Galilee along theJordan River.^{[159][160][161]} Thefinal ministry in Jerusalem begins with Jesus'striumphal entry into the city onPalm Sunday.^[162] In the Synoptic Gospels, during that week Jesusdrives the money changers from theSecond Temple andJudas bargains to betray him. This period culminates in theLast Supper and theFarewell Discourse.^{[131][162][163]}

Near the beginning of his ministry, Jesusappoints twelve apostles. In Matthew and Mark, despite Jesus only briefly requesting that they join him, Jesus's first four apostles, who were fishermen, are described as immediately consenting, and abandoning their nets and boats to do so.^[164] In John, Jesus's first two apostles were disciples of John the Baptist. The Baptist sees Jesus and calls him the Lamb of God; the two hear this and follow Jesus.^[165][166] In addition to the Twelve Apostles, the opening of the passage of theSermon on the Plain identifies a much larger group of people as disciples.^[167] Also, inLuke 10:1–16 Jesus sends70 or 72 of his followers in pairs to prepare towns for his prospective visit. They are instructed to accept hospitality, heal the sick, and spread the word that theKingdom of God is coming.^[168]

In Mark, the disciples are notably obtuse. They fail to understand Jesus's miracles,^[169] his parables,^[170] or what "rising from the dead" means.^[171] When Jesus is later arrested, they desert him.^[153]

In the Synoptics, Jesus teaches extensively, often inparables,^[172] about the Kingdom of God (or, in Matthew, theKingdom of Heaven). The Kingdom is described as both imminent^[173] and already present in the ministry of Jesus.^[174] Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those who accept his message.^[175] He talks of the "Son of man", anapocalyptic figure who will come to gather the chosen.^[28]

Jesus calls people to repent their sins and to devote themselves completely to God.^[28] He tells his followers to adhere toJewish law, although he is perceived by some to have broken the law himself, for example regarding theSabbath.^[28] When asked what the greatest commandment is, Jesus replies: "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind ... And a second is like it: 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.'"^[176] Other ethical teachings of Jesus includeloving your enemies, refraining from hatred and lust,turning the other cheek, and forgiving people who have sinned against you.^[177][178]

John's Gospel presents the teachings of Jesus not merely as his own preaching, but as divinerevelation. John the Baptist, for example, states inJohn 3:34: "He whom God has sent speaks the words of God, for he gives the Spirit without measure." InJohn 7:16 Jesus says, "My teaching is not mine but his who sent me." He asserts the same thing inJohn 14:10: "Do you not believe that I am in the Father and the Father is in me? The words that I say to you I do not speak on my own; but the Father who dwells in me does his works."^[179][180]

Approximately 30 parables form about one-third of Jesus's recorded teachings.^[179][181] The parables appear within longer sermons and at other places in the narrative.^[182] They often contain symbolism, and usually relate the physical world to thespiritual.^[183][184] Common themes in these tales include the kindness and generosity of God and the perils of transgression.^[185] Some of his parables, such as theProdigal Son,^[186] are relatively simple, while others, such as theGrowing Seed,^[187] are sophisticated, profound and abstruse.^[188] When asked by his disciples why he speaks in parables to the people, Jesus replies that the chosen disciples have been given to "know the secrets of the kingdom of heaven", unlike the rest of their people, "For the one who has will be given more and he will have in abundance. But the one who does not have will be deprived even more", going on to say that the majority of their generation have grown "dull hearts" and thus are unable to understand.^[189]

In the gospel accounts, Jesus devotes a large portion of his ministry to performingmiracles, especially healings.^[190] The miracles can be classified into two main categories: healing miracles and nature miracles.^{[191][192][193]} The healing miracles include cures for physical ailments,exorcisms,^[78][194] andresurrections of the dead.^{[195][196][197][198]} The nature miracles show Jesus's power over nature, and includeturning water into wine, walking on water, and calming a storm, among others. Jesus states that his miracles are from a divine source. When his opponents suddenly accuse him of performing exorcisms by the power ofBeelzebub, the prince of demons, Jesus counters that he performs them by the "Spirit of God" (Matthew 12:28) or "finger of God", arguing that all logic suggests that Satan would not let his demons assist the Children of God because it would divide Satan's house and bring his kingdom to desolation; furthermore, he asks his opponents that if he exorcises byBeelzebub, "by whom do your sons cast them out?".^{[199][28][200]} InMatthew 12:31–32, he goes on to say that while all manner of sin, "even insults against God" or "insults against the son of man", shall be forgiven, whoever insults goodness (or "TheHoly Spirit") shall never be forgiven; they carry the guilt of their sin forever.

In John, Jesus's miracles are described as "signs", performed to prove his mission and divinity.^[201][202] In the Synoptics, when asked by some teachers of the Law and some Pharisees to give miraculous signs to prove his authority, Jesus refuses,^[201] saying that no sign shall come to corrupt and evil people except the sign of the prophetJonah. Also, in the Synoptic Gospels, the crowds regularly respond to Jesus's miracles with awe and press on him to heal their sick. In John's Gospel, Jesus is presented as unpressured by the crowds, who often respond to his miracles with trust and faith.^[203] One characteristic shared among all miracles of Jesus in the gospel accounts is that he performed them freely and never requested or accepted any form of payment.^[204] The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracles of Jesus also often include teachings, and the miracles themselves involve an element of teaching.^[205][206] Many of the miracles teach the importance of faith. In thecleansing of ten lepers and theraising of Jairus's daughter, for instance, the beneficiaries are told that their healing was due to their faith.^[207][208]

At about the middle of each of the three Synoptic Gospels are two significant events: the Confession ofPeter and the Transfiguration of Jesus.^{[158][209][138][139]} These two events are not mentioned in the Gospel of John.^[210]

In his Confession,Peter tells Jesus, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God."^{[211][212][213]} Jesus affirms that Peter's confession is divinely revealed truth.^[214][215] After the confession, Jesus tells his disciples about his upcoming death and resurrection.^[216]

In the Transfiguration,^{[217][138][139][158]} Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles up an unnamed mountain, where "he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became dazzling white".^[218] A bright cloud appears around them, and a voice from the cloud says, "This is my Son, the Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to him."^[219][138]

The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often calledPassion Week) occupies about one-third of the narrative in the canonical gospels,^[89] starting with Jesus'striumphal entry into Jerusalem and ending with his Crucifixion.^[131][162]

In the Synoptics, the last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey through Perea andJudea that Jesus began in Galilee.^[162] Jesus rides a young donkey into Jerusalem, reflecting the tale ofthe Messiah's Donkey, an oracle from theBook of Zechariah in which the Jews' humble king enters Jerusalem this way.^[220][56] People along the way lay cloaks and small branches of trees (known aspalm fronds) in front of him and sing part of Psalms 118:25–26.^{[221][222][223][224]}

Jesus next expels the money changers from theSecond Temple, accusing them of turning it into a den of thieves through their commercial activities. He then prophesies about the coming destruction, including false prophets, wars, earthquakes, celestial disorders, persecution of the faithful, the appearance of an "abomination of desolation", and unendurable tribulations.^[225] The mysterious "Son of Man", he says, will dispatch angels to gather the faithful from all parts of the earth.^[226] Jesus warns that these wonders will occur in the lifetimes of the hearers.^[227][153] In John, the Cleansing of the Temple occurs at the beginning of Jesus's ministry instead of at the end.^[228][85]

Jesus comes into conflict with the Jewish elders, such as when theyquestion his authority and when hecriticizes them and calls them hypocrites.^[222][224]Judas Iscariot, one of thetwelve apostles, secretly strikes a bargain with the Jewish elders, agreeing to betray Jesus to them for30 silver coins.^[229][230]

The Gospel of John recounts two other feasts in which Jesus taught in Jerusalem before the Passion Week.^[231][120] InBethany, a village near Jerusalem, Jesusraises Lazarus from the dead. This potent sign^[85] increases the tension with authorities,^[162] who conspire to kill him.^[232][120]Mary of Bethany anoints Jesus's feet, foreshadowing his entombment.^[233] Jesus then makes his messianic entry into Jerusalem.^[120] The cheering crowds greeting Jesus as he enters Jerusalem add to the animosity between him and the establishment.^[162] In John, Jesus has already cleansed the Second Temple during an earlier Passover visit to Jerusalem. John next recounts Jesus's Last Supper with his disciples.^[120]

The Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shared with his twelve apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels; Paul'sFirst Epistle to the Corinthians^[234] also refers to it.^{[41][42][235]} During the meal,Jesus predicts that one of his apostles will betray him.^[236] Despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray him, Jesus reiterates that the betrayer would be one of those present. Matthew 26:23–25 and John 13:26–27 specifically identify Judas as the traitor.^{[41][42][236]}

In the Synoptics, Jesus takes bread, breaks it, and gives it to the disciples, saying, "This is my body, which is given for you." He then has them all drink from a cup, saying, "This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood."^{[237][41][238]} The Christiansacrament orordinance of theEucharist is based on these events.^[239] Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread-and-wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:22–59 (theBread of Life Discourse) has a eucharistic character and resonates with theinstitution narratives in the Synoptic Gospels and in the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.^[240]

In all four gospels, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him three times before the rooster crows the next morning.^[241][242] In Luke and John, the prediction is made during the Supper.^[243] In Matthew and Mark, the prediction is made after the Supper; Jesus also predicts that all his disciples will desert him.^[244][245] The Gospel of John provides the only account ofJesus washing his disciples' feet after the meal.^[107] John also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14–17 of the Gospel of John are known as theFarewell Discourse and are a significant source ofChristological content.^[246][247]

In the Synoptics, Jesus and his disciples go to the gardenGethsemane, where Jesus prays to be spared his coming ordeal. Then Judas comes with an armed mob, sent by the chief priests,scribes and elders. Hekisses Jesus to identify him to the crowd, which thenarrests Jesus. In an attempt to stop them, an unnamed disciple of Jesus uses a sword to cut off the earof a man in the crowd. After Jesus's arrest, his disciples go into hiding, and Peter, when questioned, thricedenies knowing Jesus. After the third denial, Peter hears the rooster crow and recalls Jesus's prediction about his denial. Peter then weeps bitterly.^{[245][153][241]}

In John 18:1–11, Jesus does not pray to be spared his crucifixion, as the gospel portrays him as scarcely touched by such human weakness.^[248] The people who arrest him areRoman soldiers and Temple guards.^[249] Instead of being betrayed by a kiss, Jesus proclaims his identity, and when he does, the soldiers and officers fall to the ground. The gospel identifies Peter as the disciple who used the sword, and Jesus rebukes him for it.

After his arrest, Jesus is taken late at night to the private residence of the high priest,Caiaphas, who had been installed by Pilate's predecessor, the Roman procuratorValerius Gratus.^[250] TheSanhedrin was a Jewish judicial body.^[251] The gospel accounts differ on thedetails of the trials.^[252] In Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53, and Luke 22:54, Jesus is taken to the house of the high priest, Caiaphas, where he ismocked and beaten that night. Early the next morning, the chief priests and scribes lead Jesus away into their council.^{[253][254][255]} John 18:12–14 states that Jesus is first taken toAnnas, Caiaphas's father-in-law, and then to the high priest.^{[253][254][255]}

During the trials Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defence, and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the priests' questions, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62, Jesus's unresponsiveness leads Caiaphas to ask him, "Have you no answer?".^{[253][254][255]} In Mark 14:61, the high priest then asks Jesus, "Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?". Jesus replies, "I am", and then predicts the coming of theSon of Man.^[28] This provokes Caiaphas to tear his own robe in anger and to accuse Jesus of blasphemy. In Matthew and Luke, Jesus's answer is more ambiguous:^[28][256] in Matthew 26:64, he responds, "You have said so", and in Luke 22:70 he says, "You say that I am."^[257][258]

The Jewish elders take Jesus toPilate's Court and ask the Roman governor,Pontius Pilate, to judge and condemn Jesus for various allegations: subverting the nation, opposing the payment of tribute, claiming to be Christ, a king, and claiming to be the son of God.^[259][255] The use of the word "king" is central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36, Jesus states, "My kingdom is not from this world", but he does not unequivocally deny being the King of the Jews.^[260][261] In Luke 23:7–15, Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and thus comes under the jurisdiction ofHerod Antipas, theTetrarch of Galilee and Perea.^[262][263] Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried,^[264] but Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put an expensive robe on him to make him look like a king, and return him to Pilate,^[262] who then calls together the Jewish elders and announces that he has "not found this man guilty".^[264]

Observing aPassover custom of the time, Pilate allows one prisoner chosen by the crowd to be released. He gives the people a choice between Jesus and a murderer calledBarabbas (בר-אבא orBar-abbâ, "son of the father", from the common given nameAbba: 'father').^[265] Persuaded by the elders,^[266] the mob chooses to release Barabbas and crucify Jesus.^[267] Pilate writes a sign in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek that reads "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews" (abbreviated asINRI in depictions) to be affixed to Jesus's cross,^[268][269] thenscourges Jesus and sends him to be crucified. The soldiers place acrown of thorns on Jesus's head and ridicule him as the King of the Jews. They beat and taunt him before taking him toCalvary,^[270] also called Golgotha, for crucifixion.^{[253][255][271]}

Jesus's crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels. After the trials, Jesus is led to Calvarycarrying his cross; the route traditionally thought to have been taken is known as theVia Dolorosa. The three Synoptic Gospels indicate thatSimon of Cyrene assists him, having been compelled by the Romans to do so.^[272][273] In Luke 23:27–28, Jesus tells the women in the multitude of people following him not to weep for him but for themselves and their children.^[272] At Calvary, Jesus is offered a sponge soaked in a concoction usually offered as apainkiller. According to Matthew and Mark, he refuses it.^[272][273]

The soldiers then crucify Jesus andcast lots for his clothes. Above Jesus's head on the cross is Pilate's inscription, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." Soldiers and passersbymock him about it. Two convicted thieves are crucified along with Jesus. In Matthew and Mark, both thieves mock Jesus. In Luke,one of them rebukes Jesus, whilethe other defends him.^{[272][274][275]} Jesus tells the latter: "today you will be with me in Paradise."^[276] The four gospels mention the presence ofa group of female disciples of Jesus at the crucifixion. In John, Jesus sees his motherMary and thebeloved disciple and tells him to take care of her.^[277]

In John 19:33–34, Roman soldiers break the two thieves' legs to hasten their death, but not those of Jesus, as he is already dead. Instead,one soldier pierces Jesus's side with alance, andblood and water flow out.^[274] The Synoptics report aperiod of darkness, and the heavy curtain in the Temple is torn when Jesus dies. In Matthew 27:51–54, an earthquake breaks open tombs. In Matthew and Mark, terrified by the events, a Romancenturion states that Jesus was theSon of God.^[272][278]

On the same day,Joseph of Arimathea, with Pilate's permission and withNicodemus's help,removes Jesus's body from the cross, wraps him in a clean cloth, and buries him in his newrock-hewn tomb.^[272] In Matthew 27:62–66, on the following day the chief Jewish priests ask Pilate for the tomb to be secured, and with Pilate's permission the priests place seals on the large stone covering the entrance.^[272][279]

The Gospels do not describe the moment of theresurrection of Jesus. They describe the discovery of hisempty tomb and several appearances of Jesus, with distinct differences in each narrative.^[280]

In the four Gospels,Mary Magdalene goes to the tomb on Sunday morning, alone or with one or severalother women.^[281] The tomb is empty, with the stone rolled away, and there are one or two angels, depending on the accounts. In the Synoptics, the women are told that Jesus is not here and that he is risen.^[282] In Mark and Matthew, the angel also instructs them to tell the disciples to meet Jesus in Galilee.^[283] In Luke,Peter visits the tomb after he is told it is empty.^[284] In John, he goes there with the beloved disciple.^[285] Matthew mentions Roman guards at the tomb,^[286] who report to the priests of Jerusalem what happened. The priests bribe them to say that the disciplesstole Jesus's body during the night.^[287]

The four Gospels then describe various appearances of Jesus in his resurrected body. Jesus first reveals himself to Mary Magdalene in Mark 16:9 and John 20:14–17,^[288] along with "the other Mary" in Matthew 28:9,^[289] while in Luke the first reported appearance is totwo disciples heading toEmmaus.^[290] Jesus then reveals himself to the eleven disciples, in Jerusalem or in Galilee.^[291] In Luke 24:36–43, he eats and shows them histangible wounds to prove that he is not a spirit.^[292] He also shows them toThomas to endhis doubts, in John 20:24–29.^[293] In the Synoptics, Jesuscommissions the disciples to spread the gospel message to all nations,^[107][294] while inJohn 21, hetells Peter to take care of his sheep.^[48][295]

Jesus'sascension into Heaven is described in Luke 24:50–53, Acts 1:1–11, and mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16. In theActs of the Apostles, forty days after the Resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight". 1 Peter 3:22 states that Jesus has "gone into heaven and is at the right hand of God".^[48]

The Acts of the Apostles describes several appearances of Jesus after his Ascension. In Acts 7:55,Stephen gazes into heaven and sees "Jesus standing at the right hand of God" just before his death.^[296] On the road toDamascus, the ApostlePaul is converted to Christianity after seeing a blinding light and hearing a voice saying, "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting."^[297] In Acts 9:10–18, Jesus instructsAnanias of Damascus in a vision to heal Paul.^[298] TheBook of Revelation includes a revelation from Jesus concerning thelast days of Earth.^[299]

After Jesus's life, his followers, as described in the first chapters of theActs of the Apostles, were all Jews either by birth orconversion, for which the biblical term "proselyte" is used,^[300] and referred to by historians asJewish Christians. The early Gospel message was spreadorally, probably inAramaic,^[301] but almost immediately also inGreek.^[302] TheNew Testament's Acts of the Apostles andEpistle to the Galatians record that the first Christian community wascentered in Jerusalem and its leaders includedPeter,James, the brother of Jesus, andJohn the Apostle.^[303]

Afterhis conversion,Paul the Apostle spread the teachings of Jesus to variousnon-Jewish communities throughout the eastern Mediterranean region. Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any otherNew Testament author.^[304] By the end of the1st century, Christianity began to be recognized internally and externally as aseparate religion from Judaism which itself was refined and developed further in the centuries after thedestruction of theSecond Temple.^[305]

Numerous quotations in the New Testament and other Christian writings of the first centuries indicate that early Christians generally used and revered theHebrew Bible (theTanakh) asreligious text, mostly in the Greek (Septuagint) or Aramaic (Targum) translations.^[306]

Early Christians wrote many religious works, including the ones included in thecanon of the New Testament. The canonical texts, which have become the main sources used by historians to try to understand the historical Jesus and sacred texts within Christianity, were probably written between 50 and 120 AD.^[307]

Prior to theEnlightenment, the Gospels were usually regarded as accurate historical accounts, but since then scholars have emerged who question the reliability of the Gospels and draw a distinction between the Jesus described in the Gospels and the Jesus of history.^[308] Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during the quest that applied them.^[78][309] While there is widespread scholarly agreement on the existence of Jesus,^[f] and a basic consensus on the general outline of his life,^[p] the portraits of Jesus constructed by various scholars often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the gospel accounts.^[311][312]

Approaches to the historical reconstruction of the life of Jesus have varied from the "maximalist" approaches of the 19th century, in which the gospel accounts were accepted as reliable evidence wherever it is possible, to the "minimalist" approaches of the early 20th century, where hardly anything about Jesus was accepted as historical.^[313] In the 1950s, as the second quest for the historical Jesus gathered pace, the minimalist approaches faded away, and in the 21st century, minimalists such asPrice are a small minority.^[314][315] Although a belief in theinerrancy of the Gospels cannot be supported historically, many scholars since the 1980s have held that, beyond the few facts considered to be historically certain, certain other elements of Jesus's life are "historically probable".^{[314][316][317]} Modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus thus focuses on identifying the most probable elements.^[318][319]

In AD 6,Judea,Idumea, andSamaria were transformed from aHerodianclient state of theRoman Empire into an imperial province, also calledJudea. A Romanprefect, rather than a client ruler, governed the land. The prefect governed fromCaesarea Maritima, leavingJerusalem to be run by theHigh Priest of Israel.^[320] As an exception, the prefect came to Jerusalem during religious festivals, when religious and patriotic enthusiasm sometimes inspired unrest or uprisings.Galilee withPerea was a Herodian client state under the rule ofHerod Antipas since 4 BC.^[320] Galilee was evidently prosperous, and poverty was limited enough that it did not threaten the social order.^[28]Philip (d. 34 AD), half-brother of Herod Antipas, ruled asTetrarch yet another Herodian client state to the north and east of the sea of Galilee that includedGaulanitis,Batanea, andIturea though this was mostly non-Jewish.^[321] South of this on the east bank of the Jordan was theDecapolis; a collection of Hellenistic city-states that were at this time clients of the Roman empire. North of Galilee were the cities ofTyre andSidon which were in the Roman province ofSyria. Though non-Jewish lands surrounded the mostly Jewish territories of Judea and Galilee, Roman law and practice allowed Jews to remain separate legally and culturally.^[28]

This was the era ofHellenistic Judaism, which combinedJewish religious tradition with elements ofHellenistic culture. Until thefall of the Western Roman Empire and theMuslim conquests of the Eastern Mediterranean, the main centers of Hellenistic Judaism wereAlexandria (Egypt) andAntioch (now Southern Turkey), the two mainGreek colonies of theMiddle East and North Africa area, both founded at the end of the 4th century BC in the wake of the conquests ofAlexander the Great. Hellenistic Judaism also existed inJerusalem during the Second Temple Period, where there was conflict betweenHellenizers and traditionalists (sometimes calledJudaizers). TheHebrew Bible was translated fromBiblical Hebrew andBiblical Aramaic intoJewish Koine Greek; theTargum translations into Aramaic were also generated during this era, both due to the decline of knowledge of Hebrew.^[322]

Jews based their faith and religious practice on theTorah, five books said to have been given by God toMoses. The three prominent religious parties were thePharisees, theEssenes, and theSadducees. Together these parties represented only a small fraction of the population. Most Jews looked forward to a time when God would deliver them from their pagan rulers, possibly through war against the Romans.^[28]

New Testament scholars face a formidable challenge when they analyse the canonical Gospels.^[324] The Gospels are not biographies in the modern sense, and the authors explain Jesus's theological significance and recount his public ministry while omitting many details of his life.^[324]

The reports of supernatural events associated with Jesus's death and resurrection make the challenge even more difficult.^[324] Scholars regard the Gospels as compromised sources of information because the writers were trying to glorify Jesus.^[68] Ed Sanders states that the sources for Jesus's life are better than sources scholars have for the life ofAlexander the Great.^[68]

Scholars use a number of criteria, such as thecriterion of independent attestation, thecriterion of coherence, and thecriterion of discontinuity to judge the historicity of events.^[325] The historicity of an event also depends on the reliability of the source; indeed, the Gospels are not independent nor consistent records of Jesus's life. Mark, which is most likely the earliest written gospel, has been considered for many decades the most historically accurate.^[326] John, the latest written gospel, differs considerably from the Synoptic Gospels, and thus is generally considered less reliable, although more and more scholars now also recognize that it may contain a core of older material as historically valuable as the Synoptic tradition or even more so.^[327]

Some scholars (most notably theJesus Seminar) believe that the non-canonicalGospel of Thomas might be an independent witness to many of Jesus's parables and aphorisms. For example, Thomas confirms that Jesus blessed the poor and that this saying circulated independently before being combined with similar sayings in theQ source.^[328] However, the majority of scholars are sceptical about this text and believe it should be dated to the 2nd century AD.^[329][330]

Other select non-canonical Christian texts may also have value for historical Jesus research.^[72]

Early non-Christian sources that attest to the historical existence of Jesus include the works of the historiansJosephus andTacitus.^{[q][323][332]} Josephus scholarLouis Feldman has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus's reference to Jesus inbook 20 of theAntiquities of the Jews, and it is disputed only by a small number of scholars.^[333][334] Tacitus referred to Christ and his execution by Pilate inbook 15 of his workAnnals. Scholars generally consider Tacitus's reference to the execution of Jesus to be both authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.^[335]

Non-Christian sources are valuable in two ways. First, they show that even neutral or hostile parties never show any doubt that Jesus actually existed. Second, they present a rough picture of Jesus that is compatible with that found in the Christian sources: that Jesus was a teacher, had a reputation as a miracle worker, had a brother James, and died a violent death.^[336]

Archaeology helps scholars better understand Jesus's social world.^[337] Recent archaeological work, for example, indicates thatCapernaum, a city important in Jesus's ministry, was poor and small, without even aforum or anagora.^[338][339] This archaeological discovery resonates well with the scholarly view that Jesus advocated reciprocal sharing among the destitute in that area of Galilee.^[338]

Jesus was a Galilean Jew,^[10] born around the beginning of the 1st century, who died in AD 30 or 33 inJudea.^[340] The general scholarly consensus is that Jesus was a contemporary ofJohn the Baptist and was crucified as ordered by the Roman governorPontius Pilate,^[192] who held office from AD 26 to 36.^[192]

The Gospels offer several indications concerning the year of Jesus's birth. Matthew 2:1 associates the birth of Jesus with the reign ofHerod the Great, who died around 4 BC, and Luke 1:5 mentions that Herod was on the throne shortly before the birth of Jesus,^[341][342] although this gospel also associates the birth with theCensus of Quirinius which took place ten years later.^[343][344] Luke 3:23 states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" at the start of hisministry, which according to Acts 10:37–38 was preceded by John the Baptist's ministry, which was recorded in Luke 3:1–2 to have begun in the 15th year ofTiberius's reign (AD 28 or 29).^[342][345] By collating the gospel accounts with historical data and using various other methods, most scholars arrive at a date of birth for Jesus between 6 and 4 BC,^[345][346] but some propose estimates that include a wider range.^[r]

The date range for Jesus's ministry has been estimated using several different approaches.^[347][348] One of these applies the reference in Luke 3:1–2, Acts 10:37–38, and the dates of Tiberius's reign, which are well known, to give a date of around 28–29 AD for the start of Jesus's ministry.^[349] Another approach estimates a date around 27–29 AD by using the statement about the temple in John 2:13–20, which asserts that thetemple in Jerusalem was in its 46th year of construction at the start of Jesus's ministry, together with Josephus's statement^[350] that the temple's reconstruction was started by Herod the Great in the 18th year of his reign.^[347][351] A further method uses the date of thedeath of John the Baptist and the marriage ofHerod Antipas toHerodias, based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it with Matthew 14:4 and Mark 6:18.^[352][353] Given that most scholars date the marriage of Herod and Herodias as AD 28–35, this yields a date about AD 28–29.^[348]

A number of approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion of Jesus. Most scholars agree that he died in AD 30 or 33.^[340][354] The Gospels state that the event occurred during the prefecture of Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea from AD 26 to 36.^{[355][356][357]} The date for theconversion of Paul (estimated to be AD 33–36) acts as an upper bound for the date of Crucifixion. The dates for Paul's conversion and ministry can be determined by analysing thePauline epistles and theActs of the Apostles.^[358][359] Astronomers have tried to estimate the precise date of the Crucifixion by analysing lunar motion and calculating historic dates ofPassover, a festival based on the lunisolarHebrew calendar. The most widely accepted dates derived from this method are 7 April AD 30, and 3 April AD 33 (bothJulian).^[360]

Nearly all historians (both modern and historical) agree that Jesus was a real person who historically existed.^[f] Scholars have reached a limited consensus on the basics of Jesus's life.^[361]

Many scholars agree that Joseph, Jesus's father, died before Jesus began his ministry. Joseph is not mentioned in the Gospels during Jesus's ministry. Joseph's death would explain why in Mark 6:3, Jesus's neighbours refer to Jesus as the "son of Mary" (sons were usually identified by their fathers).^[362]

According to Theissen and Merz, it is common for extraordinarycharismatic leaders, such as Jesus, to come into conflict with their ordinary families.^[363] In Mark, Jesus's family comes to get him, fearing that he is mad (Mark 3:20–34), and this account is thought to be historical because early Christians would probably not have invented it.^[364] After Jesus's death, many members of his family joined the Christian movement.^[363] Jesus's brotherJames became a leader of the Jerusalem Church.^[365]

Géza Vermes says that the doctrine of thevirgin birth of Jesus arose from theological development rather than from historical events.^[366]Despite the widely held view that the authors of the Synoptic Gospels drew upon each other (the so-calledsynoptic problem), other scholars take it as significant that the virgin birth isattested by two separate gospels, Matthew and Luke.^{[367][368][369][370][371][372]}

According toE. P. Sanders, thebirth narratives in theGospel of Matthew and theGospel of Luke are the clearest cases of invention in the Gospel narratives of Jesus's life. Marcus Borg concurs, explaining that, "I (and most mainline scholars) do not see these stories as historically factual."^[373] Both accounts have Jesus born inBethlehem, in accordance with Jewish salvation history, and both have him growing up in Nazareth. But Sanders points out that the two Gospels report completely different and irreconcilable explanations for how that happened. Luke's account of a census in which everyone returned to their ancestral cities is not plausible. Matthew's account is more plausible, but the story reads as though it was invented to identify Jesus as a newMoses, and the historianJosephus reports Herod the Great's brutality without ever mentioning thathe massacred little boys.^[374] The contradictions between the two Gospels were probably apparent to the early Christians already, since attempts to harmonize the two narratives are already present in the earlier apocryphalinfancy gospels (theInfancy Gospel of Thomas and theGospel of James), which are dated to the 2nd century AD.^[375][376]

Conservative scholars argue that despite the uncertainty of the details, the gospel birth narratives trace back to historical, or at least much earlier pre-gospel traditions.^{[377][378][379][380]} For instance, according toBen Witherington:

What we find in Matthew and Luke is not the story of ... a [god] descending to earth and, in the guise of a man, mating with a human woman, but rather the story of a miraculous conception without the aid of any man, divine or otherwise. As such, this story is without precedent either in Jewish or pagan literature.^[381]

Sanders says that the genealogies of Jesus are based not on historical information but on the author's desire to show that Jesus was the universal Jewish saviour.^[92] In any event, once the doctrine of the virgin birth of Jesus became established, that tradition superseded the earlier tradition that he was descended fromDavid through Joseph.^[382] TheGospel of Luke reports that Jesus was ablood relative ofJohn the Baptist, but scholars generally consider this connection to be invented.^[92][383]

Most modern scholars consider Jesus's baptism to be a definite historical fact, along with his crucifixion.^[6] The theologianJames D. G. Dunn states that they "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.^[6] Scholars adduce thecriterion of embarrassment, saying that early Christians would not have invented a baptism that might imply that Jesus committedsins and wanted torepent.^[384][385] According to Theissen and Merz, Jesus was inspired byJohn the Baptist and took over from him many elements of his teaching.^[386]

Most scholars hold that Jesus lived inGalilee andJudea and did not preach or study elsewhere.^[387] They agree that Jesus debated with Jewish authorities on the subject of God, performed some healings, taught inparables and gathered followers.^[192] Jesus's Jewish critics considered his ministry to be scandalous because he feasted with sinners, fraternized with women, and allowed his followers to pluck grain on the Sabbath.^[55] According to Sanders, it is not plausible that disagreements over how to interpret the Law of Moses and the Sabbath would have led Jewish authorities to want Jesus killed.^[388]

According to Ehrman, Jesus taught that a coming kingdom was everyone's proper focus, not anything in this life.^[389] He taught about the Jewish Law, seeking its true meaning, sometimes in opposition to traditions. Jesus put love at the center of the Law, and following that Law was an apocalyptic necessity.^[390] His ethical teachings called for forgiveness, not judging others, loving enemies, and caring for the poor.^[391] Funk and Hoover note that typical of Jesus wereparadoxical or surprising turns of phrase, such as advising one, when struck on the cheek,to offer the other cheek to be struck as well.^[392][393]

The Gospels portray Jesus teaching in well-defined sessions, such as theSermon on the Mount in the Gospel of Matthew or the parallelSermon on the Plain in Luke. According to Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz, these teaching sessions include authentic teachings of Jesus, but the scenes were invented by the respective evangelists to frame these teachings, which had originally been recorded without context.^[72] While Jesus'smiracles fit within the social context ofantiquity, he defined them differently. First, he attributed them to the faith of those healed. Second, he connected them toend times prophecy.^[394]

Jesus chosetwelve disciples (the "Twelve"),^[395] evidently as anapocalyptic message. All three Synoptics mention the Twelve, although the names on Luke's list vary from those in Mark and Matthew, suggesting that Christians were not certain who all the disciples were. The twelve disciples might have represented the twelve originaltribes of Israel, which would be restored once God's rule was instituted. The disciples were reportedly meant to be the rulers of the tribes in the coming Kingdom.^[396] According to Bart Ehrman, Jesus's promise that the Twelve would rule is historical, because the Twelve includedJudas Iscariot. In Ehrman's view, no Christians would have invented a line from Jesus, promising rulership to the disciple who betrayed him.^[397]

In Mark, the disciples play hardly any role other than a negative one. While others sometimes respond to Jesus with complete faith, his disciples are puzzled and doubtful. They serve as afoil to Jesus and to other characters. The failings of the disciples are probably exaggerated in Mark, and the disciples make a better showing in Matthew and Luke.^[398]

Sanders says that Jesus's mission was not aboutrepentance, although he acknowledges that this opinion is unpopular. He argues that repentance appears as a strong theme only in Luke, that repentance wasJohn the Baptist's message, and that Jesus's ministry would not have been scandalous if the sinners he ate with had been repentant.^[399] According to Theissen and Merz, Jesus taught that God was generously giving people an opportunity to repent.^[400]

Jesus taught that an apocalyptic figure, the "Son of Man", would soon come on clouds of glory to gather the elect or chosen ones.^[401] He referred to himself as a "son of man" in the colloquial sense of "a person", but scholars do not know whether he also meant himself when he referred to the heavenly "Son of Man".Paul the Apostle and other early Christians interpreted the "Son of Man" as the risen Jesus.^[28]

The Gospels refer to Jesus not only as a messiah but in the absolute form as "the Messiah" or, equivalently, "the Christ". In early Judaism, this absolute form of the title is not found, but only phrases such as "his messiah". The tradition is ambiguous enough to leave room for debate as to whether Jesus defined hiseschatological role as that of the Messiah.^[402] The Jewish messianic tradition included many different forms, some of them focused on a messiah figure and others not. Based on the Christian tradition,Gerd Theissen advances the hypothesis that Jesus saw himself in messianic terms but did not claim the title "Messiah".^[403] Bart Ehrman argues that Jesus did consider himself to be the Messiah, albeit in the sense that he would be the king of the new political order that God would usher in,^[404] not in the sense that most people today think of the term.^[405]

Around AD 30, Jesus and his followers travelled fromGalilee toJerusalem to observePassover.^[395] Jesus caused a disturbance in theSecond Temple,^[24] which was the center of Jewish religious and civil authority. Sanders associates it with Jesus's prophecy that the Temple would be totally demolished.^[406] Jesus held a last meal with his disciples, which is the origin of theSacrament of the Holy Eucharist. His words as recorded in the Synoptic gospels and Paul'sFirst Letter to the Corinthians do not entirely agree, but this meal appears to have pointed to Jesus's place in the coming Kingdom of God when very probably Jesus knew he was about to be killed, although he may have still hoped that God might yet intervene.^[407]

The Gospels say that Jesus was betrayed to the authorities by a disciple, and many scholars consider this report to be highly reliable.^[148] He was executed on the orders ofPontius Pilate, the Romanprefect ofJudaea.^[24] Pilate most likely saw Jesus's reference to the Kingdom of God as a threat to Roman authority and worked with the Temple elites to have Jesus executed.^[408] The Sadducean high-priestly leaders of the Temple more plausibly had Jesus executed for political reasons than for his teaching.^[148] They may have regarded him as a threat to stability, especially after he caused a disturbance at the Second Temple.^[148][409] Other factors, such as Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, may have contributed to this decision.^[410] Most scholars consider Jesus's crucifixion to be factual because early Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.^[6][411]

After Jesus's death, his followers said he was restored to life, although the exact details of their experiences are unclear. The gospel reports contradict each other, possibly suggesting competition among those claiming to have seen him first rather than deliberate fraud.^[412] On the other hand,L. Michael White suggests that inconsistencies in the Gospels reflect differences in the agendas of their unknown authors.^[361] The followers of Jesus formed a community to wait for his return and the founding of his kingdom.^[24]

Modern research on the historical Jesus has not led to a unified picture of the historical figure, partly because of the variety of academic traditions represented by the scholars.^[413] Given the scarcity of historical sources, it is generally difficult for any scholar to construct a portrait of Jesus that can be considered historically valid beyond the basic elements of his life.^[69][70] The portraits of Jesus constructed in these quests often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the Gospels.^[311][414]

Jesus is seen as the founder of, in the words of Sanders, a "renewal movement within Judaism". One of the criteria used to discern historical details in the "third quest" is the criterion of plausibility, relative to Jesus's Jewish context and to his influence on Christianity. A disagreement in contemporary research is whether Jesus wasapocalyptic. Most scholars conclude that he was an apocalyptic preacher, such asJohn the Baptist andPaul the Apostle. In contrast, certain prominent North American scholars, such asBurton Mack and John Dominic Crossan, advocate for a non-eschatological Jesus, one who is more of a Cynicsage than an apocalyptic preacher.^[415] In addition to portraying Jesus as an apocalyptic prophet, a charismatic healer or acynic philosopher, some scholars portray him as the true messiah or anegalitarian prophet ofsocial change.^[416][417] However, the attributes described in the portraits sometimes overlap, and scholars who differ on some attributes sometimes agree on others.^[418]

Since the 18th century, scholars have occasionally put forth that Jesus was a political national messiah, but the evidence for this portrait is negligible. Likewise, the proposal that Jesus was aZealot does not fit with the earliest strata of the Synoptic tradition.^[148]

Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.^[421] The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the 1st century AD includeJewish Palestinian Aramaic,Hebrew, andGreek, with Aramaic being predominant.^[422][423] There is substantial consensus that Jesus gave most of his teachings in Aramaic^[424] in theGalilean dialect.^[425][426] Other than Aramaic and Hebrew, it is likely that he was also able to speak in Greek.^{[427][428][429]}

Modern scholars agree that Jesus was a Jew of 1st-centuryJudea.^[430]Ioudaios in New Testament Greek^[s] is a term which in the contemporary context may refer to religion (Second Temple Judaism), ethnicity (of Judea), or both.^{[433][434][435]} In a review of the state of modern scholarship,Amy-Jill Levine writes that the entire question of ethnicity is "fraught with difficulty", and that "beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish', rarely does the scholarship address what being 'Jewish' means".^[436]

The New Testament gives no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death—it is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it mentions.^{[437][438][439]} Jesus probably looked like a typical Jewish man of his time and place; standing around 166 cm (5 ft 5 in) tall with a thin but fit build,olive-brown skin, brown eyes and short, dark hair. He also probably had a beard that was not particularly long or heavy.^[440]

The Christ myth theory is the hypothesis that Jesus of Nazareth never existed; or if he did, that he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity and the accounts in thegospels.^[t] Stories of Jesus's birth, along with other key events, have so many mythic elements that some scholars have suggested that Jesus himself was a myth.^[442]

Bruno Bauer (1809–1882) taught that the first Gospel was a work of literature that produced history rather than described it. According toAlbert Kalthoff (1850–1906), a social movement produced Jesus when it encountered Jewish messianic expectations.Arthur Drews (1865–1935) saw Jesus as the concrete form of a myth that predated Christianity.^[443]

Despite arguments put forward by authors who have questioned the existence of ahistorical Jesus, virtually all scholars of antiquity accept that Jesus was a historical figure and consider Christ's myth theory fringe.^{[444][445][446][447][448][449][450]}

Jesus's teachings and the retelling of his life story have significantly influenced the course ofhuman history, and have directly or indirectly affected the lives of billions of people, even non-Christians, worldwide.^[451][452] He is considered by many people to be the most influential figure to have ever lived, finding a significant place in numerous cultural contexts.^[453][454]

Apart from his own disciples and followers,^[455] the Jews of Jesus's day generallyrejected him as the messiah,^[456] as does Judaism today.^[457] Christian theologians,ecumenical councils, reformers and others have written extensively about Jesus over the centuries.Christian denominations have often been defined or characterized by their descriptions of Jesus. Meanwhile,Manichaeans,Gnostics,Muslims,Druzes,^[458] theBaháʼís, and others have found prominent places for Jesus in their religions.^{[459][460][461]}

Jesus is the central figure of Christianity.^[82] Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize the key beliefs shared among majordenominations, as stated in theircatechetical orconfessional texts.^{[462][463][464]} Christian views of Jesus are derived from the texts of theNew Testament, including thecanonical gospels and letters such as thePauline epistles and theJohannine writings. These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life, and that he is the Christ and theSon of God.^[465] Despite their many shared beliefs, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and bothmajor and minor differences on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries.^[466]

The New Testament states that theresurrection of Jesus is the foundation of the Christian faith.^[467][468] Christians believe that through his sacrificial death and resurrection, humans can bereconciled with God and are thereby offeredsalvation and the promise ofeternal life.^[196] Recalling the words ofJohn the Baptist in thegospel of John, these doctrines sometimes refer to Jesus as theLamb of God, who was crucified to fulfill his role as the servant of God.^[469][470] Jesus is thus seen as thenew and last Adam, whose obedience contrasts withAdam's disobedience.^[471] Christians view Jesus as a role model, whose God-focused life believers are encouraged to imitate.^[82]

At present, most Christians believe that Jesus is both human and the Son of God.^[472] While there has beentheological debate over his nature,^[u] Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is the Logos, God's incarnation andGod the Son, both fully divine and fully human. However, the doctrine of the Trinity is not universally accepted among Christians.^[474][475] With theReformation, Christians such asMichael Servetus and theSocinians started questioning the ancient creeds that had established Jesus's two natures.^[28] Nontrinitarian Christian groups includethe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,^[476]Unitarians andJehovah's Witnesses.^[473]

Christians revere not only Jesus himself but alsohis name. Devotions to theHoly Name of Jesus go back to the earliest days of Christianity.^[477][478] These devotions and feasts exist in bothEastern andWestern Christianity.^[478]

Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus (or any future Jewish messiah) being God,^[409] or a mediator to God, or part of a Trinity.^[479] It holds that Jesus is not the messiah, arguing that he neither fulfilled the messianic prophecies in theTanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah.^[480] Jews argue that Jesus did not fulfill prophecies to build theThird Temple,^[481] gather Jews back to Israel,^[482] bring world peace,^[483] and unite humanity under the God of Israel.^[484][485] Furthermore, according to Jewish tradition, there were no prophets afterMalachi,^[486] who delivered his prophecies in the 5th century BC.^[487]

Judaic criticism of Jesus is long-standing, and includes arange of stories in theTalmud, written and compiled from the 3rd to the 5th century AD.^[488] In one such story,Yeshu HaNozri ('Jesus the Nazarene'), a lewd apostate, is executed by the Jewish high court for spreading idolatry and practising magic.^[489] According to some, the form Yeshu is anacronym which in Hebrew reads "may his name and memory be blotted out".^[490] The majority of contemporary scholars consider that this material provides no information on the historical Jesus.^[491] TheMishneh Torah, a late 12th-century work ofJewish law written byMoses Maimonides, states that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world to err and serve a god other than the Lord".^[492]

Medieval Hebrew literature contains the anecdotal "Episode of Jesus" (known also asToledot Yeshu), in which Jesus is described as being the son of Joseph, the son ofPandera (see:Episode of Jesus). The account portrays Jesus as an impostor.^[493]

Manichaeism, an ancient religious movement, became one of the earliest organized religions outside of Christianity to honor Jesus as a significant figure.^{[494][495][496]} Within the Manichaean belief system, Jesus is revered alongside other prominent prophets such asZoroaster,Gautama Buddha, andMani himself.^[497][498]

A major figure in Islam,^{[499][500][501]} Jesus (often referred to by his Quranic nameʿĪsā) is considered to be amessenger ofGod and the messiah (al-Masīḥ) who was sent to guide theChildren of Israel (Banī Isrāʾīl) with a new scripture, the Gospel (referred to in Islam asInjīl).^[501][502] Muslims regard the gospels' accounts in the New Testament as partially authentic, and believe that Jesus's original message was altered (taḥrīf) and thatMuhammad came later to revive it.^[503] Belief in Jesus (and all othermessengers of God) is a requirement for being aMuslim.^[504] The Quran mentions Jesus by name 25 times—more often than Muhammad^[505][506]—and emphasizes that Jesus was a mortal human who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message.^[507] While the Quran affirms the Virgin birth of Jesus, he is considered to be neither an incarnation nor ason of God.^[508][509] Islamic texts emphasize a strict notion ofmonotheism (tawḥīd) and forbid the association of partners with God, which would beidolatry.^[510]

The Quran describes the annunciation to Mary (Maryam) by the Holy Spirit that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin. It calls the virgin birth a miracle that occurred by the will of God.^[511][512] The Quran (21:91 and66:12) states that God breathedhis spirit into Mary while she was chaste.^[511][512] Jesus is called a "spirit from God" because he was born through the action of the Spirit,^[511] but that belief does not implyhis pre-existence.^[513]

To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people, Jesus was given the ability to performmiracles, by permission of God rather than by his own power.^[509] Through his ministry, Jesus is seen as aprecursor to Muhammad.^[507] In the Quran (4:157–159) it is said that Jesus was not killed but was merely made to appear that way to unbelievers,^[514] and that he was raised into the heavens while still alive by God.^[515] According to most classicSunni andTwelver Shi'ite interpretations of these verses, the likeness of Jesus was cast upon asubstitute (most often one of the apostles), who was crucified in Jesus's stead.^[516] However, some medieval Muslims (among others, theghulāt writing under the name ofal-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi, theBrethren of Purity, variousIsma'ili philosophers, and the Sunni mystical-Ghazali) affirmed the historicity of Jesus's crucifixion. These thinkers held thedocetic view that, although Jesus's human form (his body) had died on the cross, his true divine nature (his spirit) had survived and ascended into heaven, so that his death was only an appearance.^[517] Nevertheless, to Muslims it is theascension rather than thecrucifixion that constitutes a major event in the life of Jesus.^[518] There is no mention of his resurrection on the third day, and his death plays no special role inIslamic theories of salvation.^[519] However, Jesus is a central figure inIslamic eschatology: Muslims believe thathe will return to Earth at theend of time and defeat theAntichrist (ad-Dajjal) by killing him.^{[501][520][521][522]}

According to the Quran, the coming ofMuhammad (also called "Ahmad") was predicted by Jesus:

And ˹remember˺ when Jesus, son of Mary, said, "O children of Israel! I am truly Allah's messenger to you, confirming the Torah which came before me, and giving good news of a messenger after me whose name will be Aḥmad." Yet when the Prophet came to them with clear proofs, they said, "This is pure magic."

— Surah As-Saf61:6

Through this verse, early Arab Muslims claimed legitimacy for their new faith in the existing religious traditions and the alleged predictions of Jesus.^[523]

TheAhmadiyya Muslim Community has severaldistinct teachings about Jesus.^[524] Ahmadis believe that he was a mortal man who survived his crucifixion and died a natural death at the age of 120 inKashmir, India, and is buried atRoza Bal.^[525]

In theDruze faith,^[458] Jesus is considered and revered as one of the seven spokesmen or prophets (natiq), defined as messengers or intermediaries between God and mankind, along with figures includingMoses,Muhammad andMuhammad ibn Isma'il, each of them sent at a different period of history to preach the message of God.^{[458][526][527][528][529]} In Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (al-Masih al-Haq), the Messiah of all Nations (Masih al-Umam), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.^[530]

In theBaháʼí Faith, Jesus is considered one of theManifestations of God,^[531] defined as divine messengers or prophets sent by God to guide humanity, along with other religious figures such as Moses,Krishna,Zoroaster,Buddha, Muhammad, andBaháʼu'lláh. Baháʼís believe that these religious founders or leaders have contributed to theprogressive revelation by bringing spiritual and moral values to humanity in their own time and place.^{[532][533][534][535][536]} As a Manifestation of God, Jesus is believed to reflect God's qualities and attributes, but is not considered the only saviour of humanity nor the incarnation of God.^{[537][538][539]} Baháʼís believe in the virgin birth,^[540][541] but see the resurrection and the miracles of Jesus as symbolic.^[542][541]

InChristian Gnosticism (now a largely extinct religious movement),^[543] Jesus was sent from the divine realm and provided the secret knowledge (gnosis) necessary for salvation. Most Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of "the Christ" at his baptism. This spirit left Jesus's body during the crucifixion but was rejoined to him when he was raised from the dead. Some Gnostics, however, weredocetics, believing that Jesus did not have a physical body, but only appeared to possess one.^[544]

SomeHindus consider Jesus to be anavatar or asadhu.^[545]Paramahansa Yogananda, an Indianguru, taught that Jesus was the reincarnation ofElisha and a student ofJohn the Baptist, the reincarnation ofElijah.^[546] SomeBuddhists, includingTenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, regard Jesus as abodhisattva who dedicated his life to the welfare of people.^[547] TheNew Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus.^[548]Theosophists, from whom many New Age teachings originated,^[549] refer to Jesus as theMaster Jesus, a spiritual reformer, and they believe that Christ, aftervarious incarnations, occupied the body of Jesus.^[550]The Urantia Book teaches Jesus is one of more than 700,000 heavenly sons of God.^[551]Antony Theodore in the bookJesus Christ in Love writes that there is an underlying oneness of Jesus's teachings with the messages contained inQuran,Vedas,Upanishads,Talmud andAvesta.^[552]Atheists reject Jesus's divinity, but have different views about him—from challenginghis mental health^[553][554] to emphasizing his "moral superiority" (Richard Dawkins).^[555]

Some of the earliest depictions of Jesus at theDura-Europos church are firmly dated to before 256.^[557] Thereafter, despite the lack of biblical references or historical records, a wide range of depictions of Jesus appeared during the last two millennia, often influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.^{[419][420][438]} As in otherEarly Christian art, the earliest depictions date to the late 2nd or early 3rd century, and surviving images are found especially in theCatacombs of Rome.^[558]

The depiction of Christ in pictorial form was highlycontroversial in the early Church.^{[559][v][560]} From the 5th century onward, flat paintedicons became popular in the Eastern Church.^[561] TheByzantine Iconoclasm acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century, art was permitted again.^[419] TheProtestant Reformation brought renewedresistance to imagery, but total prohibition was atypical, and Protestant objections to images have tended to reduce since the 16th century. Although large images are generally avoided, few Protestants now object to book illustrations depicting Jesus.^[562][563] The use of depictions of Jesus is advocated by the leaders of denominations such asAnglicans andCatholics^{[564][565][566]} and is a key element of theEastern Orthodox tradition.^[567][568]

In Eastern Christian art, theTransfiguration was a major theme, and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained inicon painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon depicting it.^[569] Icons receive the external marks of veneration, such as kisses and prostration, and they are thought to be powerful channels of divine grace.^[561]

In Western Europe, theRenaissance brought forth a number of artists who focused on depictions of Jesus;Fra Angelico and others followedGiotto in the systematic development of uncluttered images.^[419] Before the Protestant Reformation, thecrucifix was common in Western Christianity. It is a model of the cross with Jesus crucified on it. The crucifix became the central ornament of the altar in the 13th century, a use that has been nearly universal in Roman Catholic churches since then.^[570]

The total destruction that ensued with thesiege of Jerusalem by the Romans in AD 70 made the survival of items from 1st-century Judea very rare and almost no direct records survive about the history of Judaism from the last part of the 1st century through the 2nd century.^{[572][573][w]}Margaret M. Mitchell writes that althoughEusebius reports (Ecclesiastical History III 5.3) that the early Christians left Jerusalem forPella just before Jerusalem was subjected to the final lockdown, we must accept that no first-hand Christian items from the early Jerusalem Church have reached us.^[575]Joe Nickell writes, "as investigation after investigation has shown, not a single, reliably authenticated relic of Jesus exists."^[576][x]

However, throughout the history of Christianity, a number ofrelics attributed to Jesus have been claimed, although doubt has been cast on them. The 16th-century Catholic theologianErasmus wrote sarcastically about the proliferation of relics and the number of buildings that could have been constructed from the wood claimed to be from thecross used in the Crucifixion.^[579] Similarly, while experts debate whether Jesus was crucified with three nails or with four, at least thirtyholy nails continue to be venerated as relics across Europe.^[580]

Some relics, such as purported remnants of thecrown of thorns placed on the head of Jesus, receive only a modest number ofpilgrims, while theShroud of Turin (which is associated with an approvedCatholic devotion to theHoly Face of Jesus), has received millions,^[581] including the popesJohn Paul II andBenedict XVI.^[582][583]