Indigenous peoples in Canada (also known asAboriginals)^[2] are theIndigenous peoples within the boundaries ofCanada. They comprise theFirst Nations,^[3]Inuit,^[4] andMétis,^[5] representing roughly 5.0% of the totalCanadian population. There are over 600 recognizedFirst Nations governments orbands with distinctive cultures, languages, art, and music.^[6][7]

• Indigenous peoples in Canada
• Peuples autochtones au Canada

Indigenous peoples in Canada and the U.S., % of population by area
Total population
1,807,250 5.0% of the Canadian population (2021)[1]
Languages
Indigenous languages,Indigenous English,Canadian English andCanadian French
Religion
Christianity (mainlyRoman Catholicism andAnglican),Traditional Indigenous beliefs,Inuit religion,Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Related ethnic groups
Native Americans in the United States,Greenlandic Inuit,Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Old Crow Flats andBluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of human habitation in Canada.^[8] The characteristics of Indigenous cultures in Canada prior to European colonization included permanent settlements,^[9] agriculture,^[10] civic and ceremonial architecture,^[11] complexsocietal hierarchies, andtrading networks.^[12] Métis nations of mixed ancestry originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married Europeans, primarily theFrench colonizers.^[13] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting Europeans during theNorth American fur trade.

VariousAboriginal laws,treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and Indigenous groups across Canada. The impact ofsettler colonialism in Canada can be seen in its culture, history, politics, laws, and legislatures.^[14] This led to the systematic abolishment of Indigenous languages, traditions, religion and the degradation of Indigenous communities that has been described as agenocide of Indigenous peoples.^[15]

The modern Indigenous right toself-government provides forIndigenous self-government in Canada and the management of their historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within Indigenous communities.National Indigenous Peoples Day recognizes the vast cultures and contributions of Indigenous peoples to thehistory of Canada.^[16] First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have becomeprominent figures and have served as role models in the Indigenous community and help to shape theCanadian cultural identity.^[17]

InSection 35 of theConstitution Act, 1982, "Aboriginal peoples of Canada" includesIndian,Inuit, andMétis peoples.^[18] "Aboriginal" as acollective noun^[19] is a specificterm of art used as a legal term encompassing all Indigenous peoples living in Canada.^[20][21] Although "Indian" is a term still commonly used in legal documents for First Nations, the descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" have fallen into disuse in Canada, and most consider them to bepejorative.^[2][22][23]Indian remains in place as the legal term used in theCanadian Constitution.^{[2][nb 1]}Aboriginal peoples has begun to be considered outdated and is slowly being replaced by the termIndigenous peoples.^{[nb 2]} There is also an effort to recognize each Indigenous group as a distinct nation, much as there are distinct European, African, and Asian cultures in their respective places.^[31]

First Nations (most often used in the plural) has come into general use since the 1970s replacingIndians andIndian bands in everyday vocabulary.^[20][21] However, onIndian reserves,First Nations is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnic identity. In conversation, this would be "I amHaida", or "we areKwantlens", in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities.^[32] Also coming into general use since the 1970s, First Peoples refers to all Indigenous groups, i.e. First Nations, Inuit, and Métis.^[33][34][2]

Notwithstanding Canada's location within theAmericas, the termNative American is hardly ever used in Canada, in order to avoid any confusion due to the ambiguous meaning of the word "American". Therefore, the term is typically used only in reference to theIndigenous peoples within the boundaries of the present-day United States.^[35]Native Canadians was often used in Canada to differentiate this American term until the 1980s.^[36]

In contrast to the more-specificAboriginal, one of the issues with the termnative is its general applicability: in certain contexts, it could be used in reference to non-Indigenous peoples in regards to an individual place of origin / birth.^[37] For instance, people who were born or grew up inCalgary may call themselves "Calgary natives", as in they arenative to that city. With this in mind, even the termnative American, as another example, may very well indicate someone who isnative to America rather than a person who is ethnically Indigenous to the boundaries of the present-day United States. In this sense,native may encompass a broad range of populations and is therefore not recommended,^[37] although it is not generally considered offensive.

TheIndian Act (Revised Statutes of Canada (R.S.C.), 1985, c. I-5) sets the legal termIndian, designating that "a person who pursuant to this Act is registered as an Indian or is entitled to be registered as an Indian."^[38] Section 5 of the act states that a registry shall be maintained "in which shall be recorded the name of every person who is entitled to be registered as an Indian under this Act."^[38] No other term is legally recognized for the purpose of registration and the termIndian specifically excludes reference to Inuit as per section 4 of the act.^[39]

The termEskimo haspejorative connotations in Canada andGreenland. Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the termEskimo withInuit,^[40][41] though theYupik ofAlaska andSiberia do not consider themselves Inuit, andethnographers agree they are a distinct people.^[23][41] They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo. TheYupik languages are linguistically distinct from theInuit languages, but are related to each other.^[23]Linguistic groups ofArctic people have no universal replacement term forEskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik across the geographical area inhabited by them.^[23]

Besides these ethnic descriptors, Aboriginal peoples are often divided into legal categories based on their relationship withthe Crown (i.e. the state).Section 91(24) of theConstitution Act, 1867 gives the federal government (as opposed to the provinces) the sole responsibility for "Indians, and Lands reserved for the Indians." The government inherited treaty obligations from the British colonial authorities inEastern Canada and signed treaties itself with First Nations inWestern Canada (theNumbered Treaties). TheIndian Act, passed by the federal Parliament in 1876, has long governed its interactions with all treaty and non-treaty peoples.^{[citation needed]}

Members of First Nations bands who are subject to theIndian Act are compiled on a list called theIndian Register, and such people are designated as status Indians. Many non-treaty First Nations and all Inuit and Métis peoples are not subject to theIndian Act. However, two court cases have clarified that Inuit, Métis, andnon-status First Nations people are all covered by the termIndians in theConstitution Act, 1867. The first wasReference Re Eskimos (1939), covering the Inuit; the second wasDaniels v. Canada (2013), which concerns Métis and non-status First Nations.^[42]

According toNorth American archaeological and genetic evidence,migration to North and South America made them the last continents in the world withhuman habitation.^[44] During theWisconsin glaciation, 50,000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across theBering land bridge that joined Siberia to northwest North America (Alaska).^[45] Alaska wasice-free because oflow snowfall, allowing asmall population to exist. TheLaurentide ice sheet covered most of Canada, blockingnomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years.^[46][47]

Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia.^[48][49] The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10,000–20,000 years.^[50][51][52] Around 16,500 years ago, theglaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond.^[53][54][55]

The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 14,000 years ago.^[56] It is believed the inhabitants entered the Americas pursuingPleistocene mammals such as thegiant beaver,steppe wisent (bison),muskox,mastodons,woolly mammoths and ancient reindeer (early caribou).^[57] One route hypothesized is that people walked south by way of an ice-free corridor on the east side of theRocky Mountains, and then fanned out across North America before continuing on to South America.^[58] The other conjectured route is that they migrated, either on foot or usingprimitive boats, down the Pacific coast to the tip of South America, and then crossed the Rockies andAndes.^[59] Evidence of the latter has been covered by asea level rise of hundreds of metres following the last ice age.^[60][61]

TheOld Crow Flats and basin was one of the areas in Canada untouched by glaciations during thePleistocene Ice ages, thus it served as a pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals.^[62] The area holds evidence of early human habitation in Canada dating from about 12,000 years ago.^[63] Fossils from the area include some never accounted for in North America, such ashyenas and largecamels.^[64]Bluefish Caves is an archaeological site inYukon from which a specimen of apparently human-worked mammoth bone was radiocarbon dated to 12,000 years ago.^[63]

Clovis sites dated at 13,500 years ago were discovered in western North America during the 1930s.Clovis peoples were regarded as the first widespreadPaleo-Indian inhabitants of theNew World and ancestors to allIndigenous peoples in the Americas.^[65] Archaeological discoveries in the years 1979–2009 brought forward other distinctiveknapping cultures who occupied the Americas from the lowerGreat Plains to the shores of Chile.^{[citation needed]}

Localized regional cultures developed from the time of theYounger Dryas cold climate period from 12,900 to 11,500 years ago.^[66] TheFolsom tradition is characterized by the use ofFolsom points as projectile tips at archaeological sites. These tools assisted activities at kill sites that marked the slaughter and butchering of bison.^[67]

The land bridge existed until 13,000–11,000 years ago, long after the oldest proven human settlements in the New World began.^[68] Lower sea levels in theQueen Charlotte sound andHecate Strait produced great grass lands calledarchipelago ofHaida Gwaii.^[69]Hunter-gatherers of the area left distinctivelithic technology tools and the remains of large butchered mammals, occupying the area from 13,000–9,000 years ago.^[69] In July 1992, the Government of Canada officially designatedX̱á:ytem (nearMission, British Columbia) as anational historic site, one of the first Indigenous spiritual sites in Canada to be formally recognized in this manner.^[70]

ThePlano cultures was a group of hunter-gatherer communities that occupied the Great Plains area of North America between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago.^[71] The Paleo-Indians moved into new territory as it emerged from under the glaciers. Big game flourished in this new environment.^[72] The Plano culture is characterized by a range of projectile point tools collectively calledPlano points, which were used to huntbison. Their diets also includedpronghorn,elk,deer,raccoon andcoyote.^[71] At the beginning of theArchaic period, they began to adopt asedentary approach to subsistence.^[71] Sites in and aroundBelmont, Nova Scotia, have evidence of Plano-Indians, indicating small seasonal hunting camps, perhaps re-visited over generations from around 11,000–10,000 years ago.^[71] Seasonal large and smaller game fish and fowl were food and raw material sources. Adaptation to the harsh environment included tailored clothing and skin-covered tents on wooden frames.^[71]

The North American climate stabilized by 8000 BCE (10,000 years ago); climatic conditions were very similar to today's.^[73] This led to widespread migration,cultivation and later a dramatic rise in population all over the Americas.^[73] Over the course of thousands of years, Indigenous peoples of the Americas domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array of plant species. These species now constitute 50–60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide.^[74]

The vastness and variety of Canada's climates, ecology, vegetation,fauna, and landform separations have defined ancient peoples implicitly into cultural orlinguistic divisions. Canada is surrounded north, east, and west with coastline and since the last ice age, Canada has consisted of distinct forest regions. Language contributes to the identity of a people by influencing social life ways and spiritual practices.^[75] Indigenous religions developed fromanthropomorphism andanimism philosophies.^[76]

The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status.^[73] There is a continuous record of occupation ofS'ólh Téméxw by Indigenous people dating from the earlyHolocene period, 10,000–9,000 years ago.^[77] Archaeological sites atStave Lake,Coquitlam Lake,Fort Langley and region uncovered early period artifacts. These early inhabitants were highly mobile hunter-gatherers, consisting of about 20 to 50 members of an extended family.^{[77][verification needed]} TheNa-Dene people occupied much of the land area of northwest and central North America starting around 8,000 BCE.^[78] They were the earliest ancestors of theAthabaskan-speaking peoples, including theNavajo andApache. They had villages with large multi-family dwellings, used seasonally during the summer, from which they hunted, fished and gathered food supplies for the winter.^[79] TheWendat peoples settled intoSouthern Ontario along theEramosa River around 8,000–7,000 BCE (10,000–9,000 years ago).^[80] They were concentrated betweenLake Simcoe andGeorgian Bay. Wendat hunted caribou to survive on the glacier-covered land.^[80] Many different First Nations cultures relied upon the buffalo starting by 6,000–5,000 BCE (8,000–7,000 years ago).^[80] They hunted buffalo by herding migrating buffalo off cliffs.Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, nearLethbridge, Alberta, is a hunting grounds that was in use for about 5,000 years.^[80]

By 7,000–5000 BCE (9,000–7,000 years ago) thewest coast of Canada saw various cultures who organized themselves around salmon fishing.^[80] TheNuu-chah-nulth ofVancouver Island beganwhaling with advanced long spears at about this time.^[80] TheMaritime Archaic is one group of North America'sArchaic culture ofsea-mammal hunters in thesubarctic. They prospered from approximately 7,000 BCE–1,500 BCE (9,000–3,500 years ago) along theAtlantic Coast of North America.^[81] Their settlements includedlonghouses and boat-topped temporary or seasonal houses. They engaged in long-distance trade, using as currency whitechert, a rock quarried from northernLabrador toMaine.^[82] ThePre-Columbian culture, whose members were calledRed Paint People, is indigenous to theNew England andAtlantic Canada regions of North America. The culture flourished between 3,000 BCE – 1,000 BCE (5,000–3,000 years ago) and was named after their burial ceremonies, which used large quantities of redochre to cover bodies and grave goods.^[83]

TheArctic small tool tradition is a broad cultural entity that developed along theAlaska Peninsula, aroundBristol Bay, and on the eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2,500 BCE (4,500 years ago).^[84] ThesePaleo-Arctic peoples had a highly distinctive toolkit of small blades (microblades) that were pointed at both ends and used as side- or end-barbs onarrows or spears made of other materials, such as bone orantler.Scrapers, engraving tools andadze blades were also included in their toolkits.^[84] The Arctic small tool tradition branches off into two cultural variants, including the Pre-Dorset, and theIndependence traditions. These two groups, ancestors ofThule people, were displaced by the Inuit by 1000 CE.^{[84]: 179–81}

TheOld Copper complex societies dating from 3,000 BCE – 500 BCE (5,000–2,500 years ago) are a manifestation of theWoodland culture, and are pre-pottery in nature.^[85] Evidence found in the northernGreat Lakes regions indicates that they extracted copper from local glacial deposits and used it in itsnatural form to manufacture tools and implements.^[85]

The Woodland cultural period dates from about 1,000 BCE – 1,000 CE, and has locales inOntario,Quebec, andMaritime regions.^[86] The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the earlier Archaic stage inhabitants.Laurentian people of southern Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada.^[75] They created pointed-bottom beakers decorated by a cord marking technique that involved impressing tooth implements into wet clay. Woodland technology included items such as beaver incisor knives, bangles, and chisels. The population practising sedentary agricultural life ways continued to increase on a diet of squash, corn, and bean crops.^[75]

The Hopewell tradition is an Indigenous culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE – 500 CE. At its greatest extent, theHopewell Exchange System networked cultures and societies with the peoples on the Canadian shores ofLake Ontario. Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses thePoint Peninsula,Saugeen, andLaurel complexes.^[87][88][89]

First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed each with its own culture, customs, and character.[90] In the northwest were theAthapaskan speaking,Slavey,Tłı̨chǫ,Tutchone, andTlingit. Along the Pacific coast were theTsimshian; Haida;Salish;Kwakwakaʼwakw;Heiltsuk;Nootka;Nisga'a;Senakw andGitxsan. In the plains were theNiisitapi;Káínawa;Tsuutʼina; andPiikáni. In the northern woodlands were theCree andChipewyan. Around the Great Lakes were theAnishinaabe;Algonquin;Haudenosaunee and Wendat. Along the Atlantic coast were theBeothuk,Wolastoqiyik,Innu,Abenaki andMi'kmaq.^{[citation needed]}

Many First Nations civilizations^[91] established characteristics and hallmarks that included permanent urban settlements or cities,^[92] agriculture, civic andmonumental architecture, andcomplex societal hierarchies.^[93] These cultures had evolved and changed by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and have been brought forward through archaeological investigations.[94]

There are indications of contact made beforeChristopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. Indigenous people in Canada first interacted with Europeans around 1000 CE, but prolonged contact came after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries.^[95] European written accounts generally recorded friendliness of the First Nations, who profited in trade with Europeans.^[95] Such trade generally strengthened the more organized political entities such as theIroquois Confederation.^[96] Throughout the 16th century, European fleets made almost annual visits to the eastern shores of Canada to cultivate the fishing opportunities. A sideline industry emerged in the un-organizedtraffic of furs overseen by theBritish Indian Department.^[97]

Prominent First Nations people include Joe Capilano, who met with King of the United Kingdom,Edward VII, to speak of the need to settleland claims andOvide Mercredi, a leader at both theMeech Lake Accord constitutional reform discussions andOka Crisis.^[98][99]

Inuit are the descendants of whatanthropologists call theThule culture, which emerged from western Alaska around 1,000 CE and spread eastward across theArctic, displacing theDorset culture (inInuktitut, theTuniit). Inuit historically referred to the Tuniit as "giants", who were taller and stronger than the Inuit.^[100] Researchers hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, larger weapons and other technologies used by the expanding Inuit society.^[101] By 1300, the Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century. The Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures. Boundary disputes were common and led to aggressive actions.^[102]

Warfare was common among Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit, such as theNunamiut (Uummarmiut) who inhabited theMackenzie River delta area, often engaged in common warfare. The Central Arctic Inuit lacked the population density to engage in warfare. In the 13th century, the Thule culture began arriving in Greenland from what is now Canada. Norse accounts are scant. Norse-made items from Inuit campsites in Greenland were obtained by either trade or plunder.^[103] One account,Ívar Bárðarson, speaks of "small people" with whom the Norsemen fought.^[104] 14th-century accounts relate that a western settlement, one of the two Norse settlements, was taken over by theSkræling.^[105]

After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16th century,Basque fishers were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land, such as those excavated atRed Bay.^[106] The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they did raid the stations in winter for tools, and particularly worked iron, which they adapted to native needs.^[107]

Notable among the Inuit areAbraham Ulrikab and family who became azoo exhibit inHamburg, Germany, andTanya Tagaq, a traditionalthroat singer.^[108]Abe Okpik was instrumental in helping Inuit obtainsurnames rather thandisc numbers andKiviaq (David Ward) won the legal right to use his single-wordInuktitut name.^[109][110]

TheMétis are people descended from marriages between Europeans (mainly French)^[111] andCree,Ojibwe,Algonquin,Saulteaux,Menominee,Mi'kmaq,Maliseet, and other First Nations.^[13] Their history dates to the mid-17th century.^[3]

When Europeans first arrived to Canada they relied on Indigenous peoples for fur trading skills and survival. To ensure alliances, relationships between European fur traders and Indigenous women were often consolidated through marriage.^[112] The Métis homeland consists of theCanadian provinces ofBritish Columbia,Alberta,Saskatchewan,Manitoba, andOntario, as well as theNorthwest Territories (NWT).^[113]

Amongst notable Métis people are singer and actorTom Jackson,^[114]Commissioner of the Northwest TerritoriesTony Whitford, andLouis Riel who led two resistance movements: theRed River Rebellion of 1869–1870 and theNorth-West Rebellion of 1885, which ended in histrial and subsequent execution.^{[115][116][117]}

The languages inherently Métis are eitherMétis French or a mixed language calledMichif. Michif, Mechif or Métchif is aphonetic spelling of Métif, a variant of Métis.^[118] The Métis today predominantly speakEnglish, withFrench a strong second language, as well as numerousIndigenous tongues. A 19th-century community of the Métis people, theAnglo-Métis, were referred to as Countryborn. They were children ofRupert's Land fur trade typically ofOrcadian, Scottish, or English paternal descent and Indigenous maternal descent.^[119] Their first languages would have been Indigenous (Cree,Saulteaux,Assiniboine, etc.) and English. Their fathers spokeGaelic, thus leading to the development of an English dialect referred to as "Bungee".^{[120][dubious –discuss]}

S.35 of theConstitution Act, 1982 mentions the Métis yet there has long been debate over legally defining the term Métis,^[121] but on September 23, 2003, theSupreme Court of Canada ruled that Métis are a distinct people with significant rights (Powley ruling).^[122]

Unlike First Nations people, there has been no distinction between status and non-status Métis;^[123] the Métis, their heritage and Indigenous ancestry have often been absorbed and assimilated into their surrounding populations.^[124]

From the late 18th century, European Canadians (and the Canadian government) encouragedassimilation of Indigenous culture into what was referred to as "Canadian culture."^[125][126] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with a series of initiatives that aimed at complete assimilation and subjugation of the Indigenous peoples. These policies, which were made possible by legislation such as theGradual Civilization Act^[127] and theIndian Act,^[128] focused on European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living, agriculture, and education.^[129]

Missionary work directed at the Indigenous people of Canada had been ongoing since the first missionaries arrived in the 1600s, generally from France, some of whom were martyred (Jesuit saints called theCanadian Martyrs).Christianization as government policy became more systematic with theIndian Act in 1876, which would bring new sanctions for those who did notconvert to Christianity. For example, the new laws would prevent non-Christian Indigenous people from testifying or having their cases heard in court, and ban alcohol consumption.^[130] When theIndian Act was amended in 1884, traditional religious and social practices, such as thePotlatch, would be banned, and further amendments in 1920 would prevent "status Indians" (as defined in theAct) from wearing traditional dress or performing traditional dances in an attempt to stop all non-Christian practices.^[130]

Another focus of the Canadian government was to make the Indigenous groups of Canada sedentary, as they thought that this would make them easier to assimilate. In the 19th century, the government began to support the creation of model farming villages, which were meant to encourage non-sedentary Indigenous groups to settle in an area and begin to cultivate agriculture.^[131] When most of these model farming villages failed,^[131] the government turned instead to the creation ofIndian reserves with theIndian Act of 1876.^[128] With the creation of these reserves came many restricting laws, such as further bans on all intoxicants, restrictions on eligibility to vote in band elections, decreased hunting and fishing areas, and inability for status Indians to visit other groups on their reserves.^[128] Farming was still seen as an important practice for assimilation on reserves; however, by the late 19th century the government had instituted restrictive policies here too, such as thePeasant Farm Policy, which restricted reserve farmers largely to the use of hand tools.^[132] This was implemented largely to limit the competitiveness of First Nations farming.^[133]

Through theGradual Civilization Act in 1857, the government would encourage Indians (i.e., First Nations) toenfranchise – toremove all legal distinctions between [Indians] and Her Majesty's other Canadian Subjects.^[127] If an Indigenous chose to enfranchise, it would strip them and their family ofAboriginal title, with the idea that they would become "less savage" and "more civilized," thus become assimilated into Canadian society.^[134] However, they were often still defined asnon-citizens by Europeans, and those few who did enfranchise were often met with disappointment.^[134]

The final government strategy of assimilation, made possible by theIndian Act was theCanadian residential school system:

Of all the initiatives that were undertaken in the first century of Confederation, none was more ambitious or central to the civilizing strategy of the Department, to its goal of assimilation than the residential school system… it was the residential school experience that would lead children most effectively out of their "savage" communities into "higher civilization" and "full citizenship."^[135]

Beginning in 1874 and lasting until 1996, the Canadian government, in partnership with the dominant Christian Churches, ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for Indigenous children, who were forcibly taken from their homes.^[136] While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, and abuse.^[137]

According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples toassimilate into aEurocentric society, violated theUnited NationsGenocide Convention that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952. Therefore, these scholars believe that Canada could be tried ininternational court forgenocide.^[138] A legal case resulted in settlement ofCA$2 billion in 2006 and the 2008 establishment of theTruth and Reconciliation Commission, which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous peoples.^[139] In 2008, Prime MinisterStephen Harper issued an apology on behalf of the Canadian government and its citizens for the residential school system.^[140]

The termCanadian Indigenous law refers to Indigenous peoples' own legal systems. This includes the laws and legal processes developed by Indigenous groups to govern their relationships, manage their natural resources, and manage conflicts.^[141] Indigenous law is developed from a variety of sources and institutions, which differ across legal traditions.^[142]Canadian Aboriginal law is the area of law related to the Canadian government's relationship with the Indigenous peoples. Section 91(24) of theConstitution Act, 1867 gives the federal parliament exclusive power to legislate in matters related to Aboriginals, which includes groups governed by theIndian Act, different Numbered Treaties and outside of those acts.^[143]

TheMonarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada beganinteractions in North America during the European colonization period. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 recognized Indigenous title and theTreaty of Niagara of 1764 bound the Crown and the Indigenous peoples of the Great Lakes basin together in a familial relationship, a relationship that exists to this day, exemplified by First Nations attendance at the coronation ofKing Charles III.^[144] Post-Confederation Canada adopted a paternalistic approach and imposed an approach as though the nation-to-nation relationship did not exist, administering relations solely under Canadian law.^{[citation needed]}

After Canada's acquisition ofRupert's Land and theNorth-Western Territory in 1870, the elevenNumbered Treaties were imposed on the First Nations from 1871 to 1921. These treaties are agreements with the Crown administered byCanadian Aboriginal law and overseen by theMinister of Crown–Indigenous Relations.^[145]

Treaty rights would be recognized and incorporated into the 1982 Constitution. Many agreements signed before theConfederation of Canada are recognized in Canadian law, such as thePeace and Friendship Treaties, theRobinson Treaties, theDouglas Treaties, and many others, although many First Nations still have no treaty with the Crown recognizing their title, such as the Mikmaq, the Anishnaabe and several northern British Columbia nations.^{[citation needed]}

For many years, Canada did not negotiate with First Nations to addresstheir aboriginal title. Canadian court judgments and political pressure led to a change in ways following the Canadian Centennial year. The first treaty implemented under the new framework was theJames Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement in 1970 between the Cree and Quebec. This was followed by theInuvialuit Final Agreement in 1984 that led to the creation of theInuvialuit Settlement Region.^[146] TheNunavut Land Claims Agreement of 1993 lead to the creation of theInuit-majority territory ofNunavut later that decade. The Canadian Crown continues to sign new treaties with Indigenous peoples, notably though theBritish Columbia Treaty Process.^[147]

According to theFirst Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord, "cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations, whereinCanada is the short-form reference toHer Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada.^[33] The Supreme Court of Canada argued that treaties "served to reconcile pre-existing Indigenous sovereignty with assumed Crown sovereignty, and to define Aboriginal rights."^[33] First Nations interpreted agreements covered inTreaty 8 to last "as long as the sun shines, grass grows and rivers flow."^[148] However, the Canadian government has frequently breached the Crown's treaty obligations over the years, and tries to address these issues by negotiatingspecific land claim.^[149]

TheIndian Act is Canadian law that dates from 1876. The Act replaced pre-Confederation Canadian laws, and was intended to administer the Indigenous people, and define Canadian interactions. Successive Canadian governments used its powers to impose conditions on the First Nations, and guide their integration into Canada. Today still, theIndian Act indicates how reserves and bands can operate and defines who is recognized as an "Indian."^[150] There have been many updates to this law since then, allowing Canadian citizenship and voting rights among others.^{[citation needed]}

In 1985, the Canadian Parliament passed Bill C-31,An Act to Amend the Indian Act. Because of a constitutional requirement, the bill took effect on April 17, 1985.^[151]

• It ends discriminatory provisions of theIndian Act, especially those that discriminated against women.^[151]
• It changes the meaning ofstatus and for the first time allows for limited reinstatement of Indians who were denied or lost status or band membership.^[151]
• It allows bands to define their own membership rules.^[151]

Those people accepted into band membership under band rules may not be status Indians. C-31 clarified that various sections of theIndian Act apply to band members. The sections under debate concern community life and land holdings. Sections pertaining to Indians (First Nations peoples) as individuals (in this case, wills and taxation of personal property) were not included.^[151]

TheRoyal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was aroyal commission undertaken by the Government of Canada in 1991 to address issues of the Indigenous peoples of Canada.^[152] It assessed past government policies toward Indigenous people, such as residential schools, and provided policy recommendations to the government.^[153] The Commission issued its final report in November 1996. The five-volume, 4,000-page report covered a vast range of issues; its 440 recommendations called for sweeping changes to the interaction between Indigenous , non-Indigenous people and the governments in Canada.^[152] The report "set out a 20-year agenda for change."^[154]

In 1995, the Government of Canada announced the Aboriginal Right to Self-Government Policy.^[155] This policy recognizes that First Nations and Inuit have the constitutional right to shape their own forms of government to suit their particular historical, cultural, political and economic circumstances. TheIndian Health Transfer Policy provided a framework for the assumption of control of health services by Indigenous peoples, and set forth a developmental approach to transfer centred on self-determination in health.^[156][157] Through this process, the decision to enter transfer discussions withHealth Canada rests with each community. Once involved in transfer, communities can take control of health programme responsibilities at a pace determined by their individual circumstances and health management capabilities.^[158] TheNational Aboriginal Health Organization (NAHO) incorporated in 2000, was an Indigenous -designed and-controlled not-for-profit body in Canada that worked to influence and advance the health and well-being of Indigenous Peoples.^[159] Its funding was discontinued in 2012.^{[citation needed]}

First Nations and Inuit organizations ranged in size fromband societies of a few people to multi-nation confederacies like the Iroquois. First Nations leaders from across the country formed theAssembly of First Nations, which began as the National Indian Brotherhood in 1968.^[160] The Métis and the Inuit are represented nationally by theMétis National Council andInuit Tapiriit Kanatami respectively.^{[citation needed]}

Today's political organizations have resulted from interaction with European-style methods of government through theFederal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians. Indigenous political organizations throughout Canada vary in political standing, viewpoints, and reasons for forming.^[161] First Nations, Métis and Inuit negotiate with the Government of Canada throughCrown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada in all affairs concerning land, entitlement, and rights.^[160] The First Nation groups that operate independently do not belong to these groups.^[160]

Countless Indigenous words, inventions and games have become an everyday part ofCanadian language and use. Thecanoe,snowshoes, thetoboggan,lacrosse,tug of war,maple syrup and tobacco are just a few of the products, inventions and games.^[162] Some of the words include thebarbecue,caribou,chipmunk,woodchuck,hammock,skunk, andmoose.^[163]

Many places in Canada, both natural features and human habitations, use Indigenous names. The wordCanada itself derives from theSt. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning 'village' or 'settlement'.^[164] The province of Saskatchewan derives its name from theSaskatchewan River, which in the Cree language is calledKisiskatchewani Sipi, meaning 'swift-flowing river'.^[165]Ottawa, the name of Canada's capital city, comes from theAlgonquin language termadawe, meaning 'to trade'.^[165]

Modern youth groups, such asScouts Canada and theGirl Guides of Canada, include programs based largely on Indigenous lore, arts and crafts, character building and outdoor camp craft and living.^[166]

Indigenous cultural areas depend upon their ancestors' primarylifeway, or occupation, at the time of European contact. These culture areas correspond closely withphysical and ecologicalregions of Canada.^[167] TheIndigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were centred around ocean and river fishing; in the interior of British Columbia, hunter-gatherer and river fishing. In both of these areas, the salmon was of chief importance. For the people of the plains, bison hunting was the primary activity. In thesubarctic forest, other species such as the moose were more important. For peoples near theGreat Lakes andSt. Lawrence River,shifting agriculture was practised, including the raising ofmaize,beans, andsquash.^[7][167] While for the Inuit, hunting was the primary source of food withseals the primary component of their diet.^[168] The caribou, fish, othermarine mammals and to a lesser extent plants, berries and seaweed are part of theInuit diet. One of the most noticeable symbols ofInuit culture, theinuksuk is the emblem of theVancouver2010 Winter Olympics.Inuksuit are rock sculptures made by stacking stones; in the shape of a human figure, they are calledinunnguaq.^[169]

Indian reserves, established inCanadian law by treaties such asTreaty 7, are lands of First Nations recognized by non-Indigenous governments.^[170] Some reserves are within cities, such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve inPrince Albert, Saskatchewan,Wendake inQuebec City orEnoch Cree Nation 135 in theEdmonton Metropolitan Region. There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations, which were ceded multiple reserves by treaty.^[171] Indigenous people currently work in a variety of occupations and may live outside their ancestral homes. The traditional cultures of their ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a strong influence on them, from spirituality to political attitudes.^[7][167]National Indigenous Peoples Day is a day of recognition of the cultures and contributions of the First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada. The day was first celebrated in 1996, after it was proclaimed that year, by thenGovernor General of Canada,Roméo LeBlanc, to be celebrated on June 21 annually.^[16] Most provincial jurisdictions do not recognize it as astatutory holiday.^[16]

There are thirteenIndigenous language groups, eleven oral and twosign, in Canada, made up of more than sixty-five distinct dialects.^[172] Of these, onlyCree,Inuktitut, andOjibwe have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term.^[173] Two of Canada's territories give official status to native languages. In Nunavut,Inuktut, also known as theInuit language, (Inuktitut andInuinnaqtun) are official languages alongside the national languages of English and French.^{[174][175][176]}

In the Northwest Territories, theOfficial Languages Act declares that there are 11 different languages:Chipewyan, Cree, English, French,Gwichʼin, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut,Inuvialuktun, NorthSlavey, South Slavey, andTłįchǫ.^[177] Besides English and French, these languages are not vehicular in government; official status entitles citizens to receive services in them on request and to deal with the government in them.^[173]

Indigenous peoples were producing art for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeansettler colonists and the eventual establishment of Canada as anation state. Like the peoples who produced them, Indigenous art traditions spanned territories across North America. Indigenous art traditions are organized by art historians according to cultural, linguistic or regional groups: Northwest Coast,Plateau,Plains,Eastern Woodlands, Subarctic, and Arctic.^[178]

Art traditions vary enormously amongst and within these diverse groups. Indigenous art with a focus on portability and the body is distinguished from European traditions and its focus on architecture. Indigenous visual art may be used in conjunction with other arts. Among Inuit themasks and rattles of theangakkuq (shaman) are used ceremoniously in dance, storytelling and music.^[178] Artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads.^[179] The distinct Métis cultures that have arisen from inter-cultural relationships with Europeans contribute culturally hybrid art forms.^[180] During the 19th and the first half of the 20th century the Canadian government pursued an active policy offorced and cultural assimilation toward Indigenous peoples. TheIndian Act banned manifestations of theSun Dance, the Potlatch, and works of art depicting them.^[181]

It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that Indigenous artists such asMungo Martin,Bill Reid andNorval Morrisseau began to publicly renew and re-invent Indigenous art traditions. Currently, there are Indigenous artists practising in all media in Canada and two Indigenous artists, Edward Poitras andRebecca Belmore, have represented Canada at theVenice Biennale in 1995 and 2005 respectively.^[178]

Indigenous peoples in Canada encompass diverse ethnic groups with theirindividual musical traditions. Music is usually social (public) or ceremonial (private). Public, social music may bedance music accompanied byrattles and drums. Private, ceremonial music includes vocal songs with accompaniment on percussion, used to mark occasions like Midewivin ceremonies andSun Dances.^{[citation needed]}

Traditionally, Indigenous peoples used the materials at hand to make their instruments for centuries before Europeans immigrated to Canada.^[182] First Nations people madegourds and animalhorns into rattles, which were elaborately carved and brightly painted.^[183] In woodland areas, they made horns ofbirch bark anddrumsticks of carved antlers and wood. Traditional percussion instruments such as drums were generally made of carved wood and animalhides. Thesemusical instruments provide the background for songs, and songs the background for dances. Traditional First Nations people consider song and dance to be sacred. For years after Europeans came to Canada, First Nations people were forbidden to practice their ceremonies.^[181][182]

There are three (First Nations,^[3]Inuit^[4] andMétis^[5]) distinctive groups of Indigenous peoples that are recognized in the CanadianConstitution Act, 1982,sections 25 and 35.^[18] Under theEmployment Equity Act, Indigenous people are a designated group along with women, visible minorities, and persons with disabilities;^[184] as such, they are neither avisible minority under theAct or in the view ofStatistics Canada.^[185]

The2021 Census data reveals that there are over 1.8 million Indigenous people in Canada, comprising 5.0% of the overall population and a slight increase from 4.9% in 2016.^[186]

The growth of the Indigenous population has slowed compared to previous years. The population grew by 18.9% between 2011 to 2016, while the growth from 2016 to 2021 was only 9.4%. For the first time, the Census recorded more than 1 million First Nations people living in Canada. The Indigenous population continues to grow at a faster rate than the non-Indigenous population but at a reduced speed. The Indigenous population is projected to reach between 2.5 million and 3.2 million in the next 20 years.^[186]

The First Nations population overall increased by 9.7% from 2016 to 2021. However, Status First Nations saw a slower growth of 4.1%, compared to those without Registered Indian status, which grew by 27.2%. The Métis population rose by 6.3%, and the Inuit population grew by 8.5%. More than half of First Nations people (55. 5%) lived in Western Canada as of 2021. Ontario had the highest number of First Nations people, with 251,030 (about 23.9%) of the total First Nations population. Approximately 11.1% of First Nations people lived in Quebec, with 7.6% in Atlantic Canada and 1.9% in the territories.^[186]

The 2021 Census showed nearly three in four Canadians lived in urban areas, with 801,045 Indigenous people living in large urban centers. This is an increase of 12.5% from 2016, signifying that Indigenous people were more likely to reside in these areas compared to before.^[186]

Moreover, the Indigenous population is generally younger than the non-Indigenous population. In 2021, the average age of Indigenous people was 33.6 years, compared to 41.8 years for non-Indigenous people. The Inuit population was the youngest, averaging 28.9 years, followed by First Nations at 32.5 years and Métis at 35.9 years. In total, there were 459,215 Indigenous children aged 14 years and younger, making up 25.4% of the Indigenous population, while only 16.0% of the non-Indigenous population fell into this age category.^[186]

In the 20th century, the Indigenous population of Canada increased tenfold.^[187] Between 1900 and 1950 the population grew by 29%. After the 1960's theinfant mortality level on reserves dropped dramatically.^[188][189] Since the 1980's, the number of First Nations babies more than doubled and currently almost half of the First Nations population is under the age of 25.^[187][189]

Indigenous people assert that theirsovereign rights are valid, pointing to theRoyal Proclamation of 1763, which is mentioned in the CanadianConstitution Act, 1982, Section 25, theBritish North America Acts and the1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (to which Canada is a signatory) in support of this claim.^[190][191]

Ethnographers commonly classify Indigenous peoples of the Americas in the United States and Canada into ten geographical regions,cultural areas, with shared cultural traits.^[192] The Canadian regions are:

• Arctic cultural area (Eskaleut languages)
• Subarctic culture area (Na-Dene languages andAlgic languages)
• Eastern Woodlands (Northeast) cultural area (Algic languages andIroquoian languages)
• Plains cultural area (Siouan–Catawban languages)
• Northwest Plateau cultural area (Salishan languages)
• Northwest Coast cultural area (Penutian languages,Tsimshianic languages andWakashan languages)

Across Canada, 56% of Indigenous peoples live in urban areas. The urban Indigenous population is the fastest-growing population segment in Canada.^[193]

Canada census 2021.^[196]

• The abbreviation "n.o.s." means "not otherwise specified." This category includes responses indicating North American Indigenous origins, not otherwise specified (e.g., "Aboriginal," "Indigenous").
• The abbreviation "n.i.e." means "not included elsewhere." This category includes specific Anishinaabe origins, not included elsewhere (e.g., "Mississauga," "Nipissing").

• Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians
• Indigenous peoples in Northern Canada
• Aboriginal land title in Canada
• Settler colonialism in Canada
• Indigenous education in Canada

• Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada Portal – Government of Canada
• Aboriginal Peoples and CommunitiesArchived August 25, 2011, at theWayback Machine – Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada
• Aboriginal Heritage Resources and Services – Library and Archives Canada
• Aboriginal Virtual Exhibits – Virtual Museum of Canada
• Battle for Aboriginal Treaty Rights – Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (Digital Archives)
• First Peoples of Canada – The Canadian Museum of Civilization
• "Aboriginals: Treaties and Relations".Canada in the Making. Canadiana.org. Archived fromthe original on June 3, 2004.
• Map of historical territory treaties – Natural Resources Canada