Iñupiaq orInupiaq (/ɪˈnuːpiæk/ih-NOO-pee-ak,Inupiaq:[iɲupiaq]), also known asIñupiat,Inupiat (/ɪˈnuːpiæt/ih-NOO-pee-at),Iñupiatun orAlaskan Inuit, is anInuit language, or perhaps group of languages, spoken by theIñupiat people in northern and northwesternAlaska, as well as a small adjacent part of theNorthwest Territories of Canada. The Iñupiat language is a member of theInuit-Yupik-Unangan language family, and is closely related and, to varying degrees, mutually intelligible with other Inuit languages of Canada and Greenland. There are roughly 2,000 speakers.^[3] Iñupiaq is considered to be a threatened language, with most speakers at or above the age of 40.^[4] Iñupiaq is an official language of the State of Alaska, along with several other indigenous languages.^[5]

Iñupiaq
Uqausiq/Uqausriq Iñupiatun, Qanġuziq/Qaġnuziq/Qanġusiq Inupiatun
Native to	United States, formerlyRussia;Northwest Territories ofCanada
Region	Alaska; formerlyBig Diomede Island
Ethnicity	20,709Iñupiat (2015)
Native speakers	1,250 fully fluent speakers (2023)[1]
Language family	Eskaleut Eskimo Inuit Iñupiaq
Early forms	Proto-Eskimo–Aleut Proto-Eskimo Proto-Inuit
Writing system	Latin (Iñupiaq alphabet) Iñupiaq Braille
Official status
Official language in	Alaska,[2]Northwest Territories (asUummarmiutun dialect)
Language codes
ISO 639-1	ik
ISO 639-2	ipk
ISO 639-3	ipk – inclusive code Individual codes: esi – North Alaskan Iñupiatun esk – Northwest Alaska Iñupiatun
Glottolog	inup1234
ELP	Inupiaq
Iñupiaq dialects and speech communities
This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

The major varieties of the Iñupiaq language are theNorth Slope Iñupiaq andSeward Peninsula Iñupiaq dialects.

The Iñupiaq language has been in decline since contact withEnglish in the late 19th century. American territorial acquisition and the legacy ofboarding schools have created a situation today where a small minority of Iñupiat speak the Iñupiaq language. There is, however, revitalization work underway today in several communities.

The Iñupiaq language is anInuit language, the ancestors of which may have been spoken in the northern regions of Alaska for as long as 5,000 years. Between 1,000 and 800 years ago, Inuit migrated east from Alaska to Canada andGreenland, eventually occupying the entire Arctic coast and much of the surrounding inland areas. The Iñupiaq dialects are the most conservative forms of the Inuit language, with less linguistic change than the other Inuit languages.^{[citation needed]}

In the mid to late 19th century, Russian, British, and American colonists made contact with Iñupiat people. In 1885, the American territorial government appointedRev. Sheldon Jackson as General Agent of Education.^[6] Under his administration, Iñupiat people (and all Alaska Natives) were educated in English-only environments, forbidding the use of Iñupiaq and other indigenous languages of Alaska. After decades of English-only education, with strict punishment if heard speaking Iñupiaq, after the 1970s, most Iñupiat did not pass the Iñupiaq language on to their children, for fear of them being punished for speaking their language.

In 1972, theAlaska Legislature passed legislation mandating that if "a [school is attended] by at least 15 pupils whose primary language is other than English, [then the school] shall have at least one teacher who is fluent in the native language".^[7]

Today, theUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks offers bachelor's degrees in Iñupiaq language and culture, while a preschool/kindergarten-level Iñupiaq immersion school named Nikaitchuat Iḷisaġviat teaches grades PreK-1st grade inKotzebue.

In 2014, Iñupiaq became an official language of the State of Alaska, alongside English and nineteen other indigenous languages.^[5]

In 2018,Facebook added Iñupiaq as a language option on their website.^[8] In 2022, an Iñupiaq version ofWordle was created.^[9][10]

There are four main dialect divisions and these can be organized within two larger dialect collections:^[11]

Extra geographical information:

Bering Strait dialect:

The Native population of the Big Diomede Island was moved to the Siberian mainland after World War II. The following generation of the population spokeCentral Siberian Yupik or Russian.^[12] The entire population ofKing Island moved toNome in the early 1960s.^[12] The Bering Strait dialect might also be spoken inTeller on theSeward Peninsula.^[15]

Qawiaraq dialect:

A dialect of Qawiaraq is spoken inNome.^[15][12] A dialect of Qawariaq may also be spoken inKoyuk,^[12]Mary's Igloo, Council, andElim.^[15] The Teller sub-dialect may be spoken inUnalakleet.^[15][12]

Malimiutun dialect:

Both sub-dialects can be found inBuckland,Koyuk,Shaktoolik, andUnalakleet.^[15][12] A dialect of Malimiutun may be spoken inDeering,Kiana,Noorvik,Shungnak, andAmbler.^[15] The Malimiutun sub-dialects have also been classified as "Southern Malimiut" (found inKoyuk,Shaktoolik, andUnalakleet) and "Northern Malimiut" found in "other villages".^[15]

North Slope dialect:

Common North Slope is "a mix of the various speech forms formerly used in the area".^[12] The Point Barrow dialect was "spoken only by a few elders" in 2010.^[12] A dialect of North Slope is also spoken inKivalina,Point Lay,Wainwright,Atqasuk,Utqiaġvik,Nuiqsut, andBarter Island.^[15]

Iñupiaq dialects differ widely between consonants used. However, consonant clusters of more than two consonants in a row do not occur. A word may not begin nor end with a consonant cluster.^[15]

All Iñupiaq dialects have three basicvowel qualities: /a i u/.^[15][12] There is currently no instrumental work to determine whatallophones may be linked to these vowels. All three vowels can be long or short, giving rise to a system of six phonemic vowels /a aː i iː u uː/.Long vowels are represented by double letters in the orthography: ⟨aa⟩, ⟨ii⟩, ⟨uu⟩.^[15] The following diphthongs occur: /ai ia au ua iu ui/.^[15][16] No more than two vowels occur in a sequence in Iñupiaq.^[15]

The Bering strait dialect has a fourth vowel /e/, which preserves the fourth proto-Eskimo vowel reconstructed as */ə/.^[15][12] In the other dialects, proto-Eskimo */e/ has merged with the closed front vowel /i/. The merged /i/ is referred to as the "strong /i/", which causes palatalization when preceding consonant clusters in the North Slope dialect (see section on palatalization below). The other /i/ is referred to as "the weak /i/". Weak and strong /i/s are not differentiated in orthography,^[15] making it impossible to tell which ⟨i⟩ represents palatalization "short of looking at other processes which depend on the distinction between two i's or else examining data from other Eskimo languages".^[17] However, it can be assumed that, within a word, if a palatal consonant is preceded by an ⟨i⟩, it is strong. If analveolar consonant is preceded by an ⟨i⟩, it is weak.^[17]

Words begin with astop (with the exception of thepalatal stop /c/), thefricative /s/, nasals /m n/, with a vowel, or thesemivowel /j/.Loanwords, proper names, and exclamations may begin with any segment in both the Seward Peninsula dialects and the North Slope dialects.^[15] In the Uummarmiutun dialect words can also begin with /h/. For example, the word for "ear" in North Slope and Little Diomede Island dialects issiun whereas in Uummarmiutun it ishiun.

A word may end in any nasal sound (except for the /ɴ/ found in North Slope), in the stops /t k q/ or in a vowel. In the North Slope dialect if a word ends with an m, and the next word begins with a stop, the m is pronounced /p/, as inaġnam tupiŋa, pronounced /aʁnap tupiŋa/^[15]

Very little information of theprosody of Iñupiaq has been collected. However, "fundamental frequency (Hz), intensity (dB), loudness (sones), and spectral tilt (phons - dB) may be important" in Malimiutun.^[18] Likewise, "duration is not likely to be important in Malimiut Iñupiaq stress/syllable prominence".^[18]

For North Slope Iñupiaq^[11][15][19]

The voiceless stops /p/ /t/ /k/ and /q/ are not aspirated.^[15] This may or may not be true for other dialects as well.

/c/ is derived from a palatalized and unreleased /t/.^[15]

Source:^[15]

Two consonants cannot appear together unless they share the manner of articulation (in this case treating the lateral and approximant consonants as fricatives). The only exception to this rule is having a voiced fricative consonant appear with a nasal consonant. Since all stops in North Slope are voiceless, a lot of needed assimilation arises from having to assimilate a voiceless stop to a voiced consonant.

This process is realized by assimilating the first consonant in the cluster to a consonant that: 1) has the same (or closest possible) area of articulation as the consonant being assimilated to; and 2) has the same manner of articulation as the second consonant that it is assimilating to. If the second consonant is a lateral or approximant, the first consonant will assimilate to a lateral or approximant if possible. If not the first consonant will assimilate to a fricative. Therefore:

* The sound /ɴ/ is not represented in the orthography. Therefore the spellingġn can be pronounced as /ʁn/ or /ɴn/. In both examples 1 and 2, since voiced fricatives can appear with nasal consonants, both consonant clusters are possible.

The stops /t̚ʲ/ and /t/ do not have a corresponding voiced fricative, therefore they will assimilate to the closest possible area of articulation. In this case, the /t̚ʲ/ will assimilate to the voiced approximant /j/. The /t/ will assimilate into a/ʐ/. Therefore:

(In the first example above note that <sr> denotes a single consonant, as shown in the alphabet section below, so the constraint of at most two consonants in a cluster, as mentioned above, is not violated.)

In the case of the second consonant being a lateral, the lateral will again be treated as a fricative. Therefore:

Since voiced fricatives can appear with nasal consonants, both consonant clusters are possible.

The sounds/f//x/ and/χ/ are not represented in the orthography (unless they occur alone between vowels). Therefore, like the /ɴn/ example shown above, assimilation still occurs while the spelling remains the same. Therefore:

These general features of assimilation are not shared with Uummarmiut, Malimiutun, or the Seward Peninsula dialects. Malimiutun and the Seward Peninsula dialects "preserve voiceless stops (k, p, q, t) when they are etymological (i.e. when they belong to the original word-base)".^[12] Compare:

Source:^[15]

The following patterns of palatalization can occur in North Slope Iñupiaq: /t/ → /t̚ʲ/,/tʃ/ or /s/;/ɬ/ →/ʎ̥/;/l/ →/ʎ/; and /n/ →/ɲ/. Palatalization only occurs when one of these four alveolars is preceded by a strongi. Compare:

Please note that the sound /t̚ʲ/ does not have its own letter, and is simply spelled with a T t. The IPA transcription of the above vowels may be incorrect.

If a t that precedes a vowel is palatalized, it will become an /s/. The strongi affects the entire consonant cluster, palatalizing all consonants that can be palatalized within the cluster. Therefore:

Note in the first example, due to the nature of the suffix, the /q/ is dropped. Like the first set of examples, the IPA transcriptions of above vowels may be incorrect.

If a strongi precedes geminate consonant, the entire elongated consonant becomes palatalized. For Example: niġḷḷaturuq and tikiññiaqtuq.

Source:^[15]

The strongi can be paired with a vowel. The weaki on the other hand cannot.^[17] The weak i will become ana if it is paired with another vowel, or if the consonant before thei becomes geminate. This rule may or may not apply to other dialects. Therefore:

Like the first two sets of examples, the IPA transcriptions of above vowels may not be correct.

For the Uummarmiutun sub-dialect:^[16]

The following are the phonological rules:^[16]The /f/ is always found as a geminate.

The /j/ cannot be geminated, and is always found between vowels or preceded by /v/. In rare cases it can be found at the beginning of a word.

The /h/ is never geminate, and can appear as the first letter of the word, between vowels, or preceded by /k/ /ɬ/ or /q/.

The/tʃ/ and/dʒ/ are always geminate or preceded by a /t/.

The/ʐ/ can appear between vowels, preceded by consonants/ɣ/ /k/ /q//ʁ/ /t/ or /v/, or it can be followed by/ɣ/, /v/,/ʁ/.

For Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq:^[11]

Unlike the other Iñupiaq dialects, the Seward Peninsula dialect has a mid central vowel e (see the beginning of the phonology section for more information).

In North Slope Iñupiaq, all consonants represented by orthography can be geminated, except for the sounds/tʃ/ /s/ /h/ and/ʂ/.^[15] Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq (using vocabulary from the Little Diomede Island as a representative sample) likewise can have all consonants represented by orthography appear as geminates, except for /b/ /h//ŋ//ʂ/ /w/ /z/ and/ʐ/. Gemination is caused by suffixes being added to a consonant, so that the consonant is found between two vowels.^[15]

Iñupiaq was first written when explorers first arrived in Alaska and began recording words in the native languages. They wrote by adapting the letters of their own language to writing the sounds they were recording. Spelling was often inconsistent, since the writers invented it as they wrote. Unfamiliar sounds were often confused with other sounds, so that, for example, 'q' was often not distinguished from 'k' and long consonants or vowels were not distinguished from short ones.

Along with the Alaskan and SiberianYupik, the Iñupiat eventually adopted theLatin script thatMoravian missionaries developed inGreenland andLabrador. Native Alaskans also developed a system ofpictographs,^[which?] which, however, died with its creators.^[20]

In 1946, Roy Ahmaogak, an IñupiaqPresbyterian minister fromUtqiaġvik, worked withEugene Nida, a member of theSummer Institute of Linguistics, to develop the current Iñupiaq alphabet based on the Latin script. Although some changes have been made since its origin—most notably the change from 'ḳ' to 'q'—the essential system was accurate and is still in use.

Extra letter for Kobuk dialect:ʼ/ʔ/

Extra letters for specific dialects:

• Diomede:e/ə/
• Qawiaraq:ch /tʃ/

Due to the number of dialects and complexity of Iñupiaq morphosyntax, the following section discusses Malimiutun morphosyntax as a representative. Any examples from other dialects will be marked as such.

Iñupiaq is apolysynthetic language, meaning that words can be extremely long, consisting of one of three stems (verb stem, noun stem, anddemonstrative stem) along with one or more of three endings (postbases, (grammatical)endings, andenclitics).^[15] The stem gives meaning to the word, whereas endings give information regarding case, mood, tense, person, plurality, etc. The stem can appear as simple (having no postbases) or complex (having one or more postbases). In Iñupiaq a "postbase serves somewhat the same functions that adverbs, adjectives, prefixes, and suffixes do in English" along with marking various types of tenses.^[15] There are six word classes in Malimiut Inñupiaq: nouns (see Nominal Morphology), verbs (see Verbal Morphology), adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions, and interjections. Alldemonstratives are classified as either adverbs or pronouns.^[18]

The Iñupiaq category ofnumber distinguishessingular,dual, andplural. The language works on anErgative–Absolutive system, where nouns are inflected for number, several cases, and possession.^[15] Iñupiaq (Malimiutun) has nine cases, two core cases (ergative and absolutive) and seven oblique cases (instrumental,allative,ablative,locative,perlative,similative andvocative).^[18] North Slope Iñupiaq does not have the vocative case.^[15] Iñupiaq does not have a category ofgender andarticles.^{[citation needed]}

Iñupiaq nouns can likewise be classified by Wolf A. Seiler's seven noun classes.^[18][22] These noun classes are "based on morphological behavior. [They] ... have no semantic basis but are useful for case formation ... stems of various classes interact with suffixes differently".^[18]

Due to the nature of the morphology, a single case can take on up to 12 endings (ignoring the fact that realization of these endings can change depending on noun class). For example, the possessed ergative ending for a class 1a noun can take on the endings: -ma, ‑mnuk, ‑pta, ‑vich, ‑ptik, -psi, -mi, -mik, -miŋ, -ŋan, -ŋaknik, and ‑ŋata. Therefore, only general features will be described below. For an extensive list on case endings, please seeSeiler 2012, Appendix 4, 6, and 7.^[22]

The subject of an intransitive sentence or the object of a transitive sentence take on theabsolutive case. This case is likewise used to mark the basic form of a noun. Therefore, all the singular, dual, and plural absolutive forms serve as stems for the other oblique cases.^[15] The following chart is verified of both Malimiutun and North Slope Iñupiaq.

If the singular absolutive form ends with -n, it has the underlying form of -ti /tə/. This form will show in the absolutive dual and plural forms. Therefore:

Regarding nouns that have an underlying /ə/ (weak i), thei will change to ana and the previous consonant will be geminated in the dual form. Therefore:

If the singular form of the noun ends with -k, the preceding vowel will be elongated. Therefore:

On occasion, the consonant preceding the final vowel is also geminated, though exact phonological reasoning is unclear.^[18]

Theergative case is often referred to as the Relative Case in Iñupiaq sources.^[15] This case marks the subject of a transitive sentence or a genitive (possessive) noun phrase. For non-possessed noun phrases, the noun is marked only if it is a third person singular. The unmarked nouns leave ambiguity as to who/what is the subject and object. This can be resolved only through context.^[15][18] Possessed noun phrases and noun phrases expressing genitive are marked in ergative for all persons.^[18]

This suffix applies to all singular unpossessed nouns in the ergative case.

Please note the underlying /tə/ form in the first example.

This case is also referred to as the modalis case. This case has a wide range of uses described below:

Since the ending is the same for both dual and plural, different stems are used. In all the examples the k is assimilated to an ŋ.

Theallative case is also referred to as the terminalis case. The uses of this case are described below:^[18]

*It is unclear as to whether this example is regular for the dual form or not.

Iñupiaq numerals arebase-20 with a sub-base of 5. The numbers 1 to 20 are:^[23]

The sub-base of five shows in the words for 5,tallimat, and 15,akimiaq, to which the numbers 1 to 3 are added to create the words for 7, 8, 16, 17 and 18, etc. (itchaksrat '6' being irregular). Apart fromsisamat '4', numbers before a multiple of five are indicated with the subtractive element-utaiḷaq:quliŋŋuġutaiḷaq '9' fromqulit '10',akimiaġutaiḷaq '14' fromakimiaq '15',iñuiññaġutaiḷaq '19' fromiñuiññaq '20'.^[24]

Scores are created with the element-kipiaq, and numbers between the scores are composed by adding 1 through 19 to these. Multiples of 400 are created with-agliaq and 8000's with-pak. Note that these words will vary between singular-q and plural-t, depending on the speaker and whether they are being used for counting or for modifying a noun.

The system continues through compounding suffixes to a maximum ofiñuiññagliaqpakpiŋatchaq (20×400×8000³, ≈ 4 quadrillion), e.g.

There is also a decimal system for the hundreds and thousands, with the numeralsqavluun for 100 andkavluutit for 1000, thusmalġuk qavluun 200,malġuk kavluutit 2000, etc.^[25]

The numeral five,tallimat, is derived from the word for hand/arm. The word for 10,qulit, is derived from the word for "top", meaning the ten digits on the top part of the body. The numeral for 15,akimiaq, means something like "it goes across", and the numeral for 20,iñuiññaq means something like "entire person" or "complete person", indicating the 20 digits of all extremities.^[24]

Again, Malimiutun Iñupiaq is used as a representative example in this section. The basic structure of the verb is [(verb) + (derivational suffix) + (inflectional suffix) + (enclitic)], although Lanz (2010) argues that this approach is insufficient since it "forces one to analyze ... optional ... suffixes".^[18] Every verb has an obligatory inflection forperson,number, andmood (all marked by a single suffix), and can have other inflectional suffixes such astense,aspect,modality, and various suffixes carrying adverbial functions.^[18]

Tense marking is always optional. The only explicitly marked tense is the future tense. Past and present tense cannot be marked and are always implied. All verbs can be marked through adverbs to show relative time (using words such as "yesterday" or "tomorrow"). If neither of these markings is present, the verb can imply a past, present, or future tense.^[18]

Marking aspect is optional in Iñupiaq verbs. Both North Slope and Malimiut Iñupiaq have aperfective versusimperfective distinction in aspect, along with other distinctions such as:frequentative (-ataq; "to repeatedly verb"),habitual (-suu; "to always, habitually verb"),inchoative (-łhiñaaq; "about to verb"), and intentional (-saġuma; "intend to verb"). The aspect suffix can be found after the verb root and before or within the obligatory person-number-mood suffix.^[18]

Iñupiaq has the following moods:Indicative,Interrogative,Imperative (positive, negative), Coordinative, andConditional.^[18][22] Participles are sometimes classified as a mood.^[18]

Indicative mood endings can be transitive or intransitive, as seen in the table below.

Nearly all syntactic operations in the Malimiut dialect of Iñiupiaq—and Inuit languages and dialects in general—are carried out via morphological means.^[18]

The language aligns to anergative-absolutive case system, which is mainly shown through nominal case markings and verb agreement (see above).^[18]

The basic word order is subject-object-verb. However, word order is flexible and both subject and/or object can be omitted. There is a tendency for the subject of a transitive verb (marked by the ergative case) to precede the object of the clause (marked by the absolutive case). There is likewise a tendency for the subject of an intransitive verb (marked by the absolutive case) to precede the verb. The subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a clause (both marked by the absolutive case) are usually found right before the verb. However, "this is [all] merely a tendency."^[18]

Iñupiaq grammar also includes morphologicalpassive,antipassive,causative andapplicative.

Noun incorporation is a common phenomenon in Malimiutun Iñupiaq. The first type of noun incorporation islexical compounding. Within this subset of noun incorporation, the noun, which represents an instrument, location, or patient in relation to the verb, is attached to the front of the verb stem, creating a new intransitive verb. The second type ismanipulation of case. It is argued whether this form of noun incorporation is present as noun incorporation in Iñupiaq, or "semantically transitive noun incorporation"—since with this kind of noun incorporation the verb remains transitive. The noun phrase subjects are incorporated not syntactically into the verb but rather as objects marked by the instrumental case. The third type of incorporation,manipulation of discourse structure, is supported by Mithun (1984) and argued against by Lanz (2010). See Lanz's paper for further discussion.^[18] The final type of incorporation isclassificatory noun incorporation, whereby a "general [noun] is incorporated into the [verb], while a more specific [noun] narrows the scope".^[18] With this type of incorporation, the external noun can take on external modifiers and, like the other incorporations, the verb becomes intransitive. SeeNominal Morphology (Instrumental Case, Usage of Instrumental table, row four) on this page for an example.

Switch-references occur in dependent clauses only with third person subjects. The verb must be marked as reflexive if the third person subject of the dependent clause matches the subject of the main clause (more specifically matrix clause).^[18] Compare:

This is a sample of the Iñupiaq language of the Kivalina variety fromKivalina Reader, published in 1975.

Aaŋŋaayiña aniñiqsuq Qikiqtami. Aasii iñuguġuni. Tikiġaġmi Kivaliñiġmiḷu. Tuvaaqatiniguni Aivayuamik. Qulit atautchimik qitunġivḷutik. Itchaksrat iñuuvlutiŋ. Iḷaŋat Qitunġaisa taamna Qiñuġana.

This is the English translation, from the same source:

Aaŋŋaayiña was born in Shishmaref. He grew up in Point Hope and Kivalina. He marries Aivayuaq. They had eleven children. Six of them are alive. One of the children is Qiñuġana.

The comparison of various vocabulary in four different dialects:

• Inuit languages
• Inuit-Yupik-Unangan languages
• Edna Ahgeak MacLean, a well-known Iñupiaq linguist
• Iñupiat people

There are a number of online resources that can provide a sense of the language and information for second language learners.

• Atchagat Pronunciation Video by Aqukkasuk
• Alaskool Iñupiaq Language Resources
• Animal Names in Brevig Mission Dialect
• Atchagat App by Grant and Reid Magdanz—Allows you to text using Iñupiaq characters. (For all Alaska Native languages, including Iñupiaq, see updated Chert app by the same developers.)
• Dictionary of Iñupiaq, 1970 University of Fairbanks PDF by Webster
• Endangered Alaskan Language Goes Digital from National Public Radio
• Iñupiaq Handbook for Teachers (A story of the Iñupiaq language and further resources):
• University of Alaska Fairbanks Iñupiat Language Community Site
• North Slope Grammar Second Year by Dr. Edna MacLean PDF
• Online Iñupiaq morphological analyser
• Storybook—The Teller Reader, A Collection of Stories in the Brevig Mission Dialect
• Storybook—Quliaqtuat Mumiaksrat by Alaska Native Language Program, UAF and Dr. Edna MacLean
• The dialects of Iñupiaq- From Languagegeek.com, includes Northern Alaskan Consonants (US alphabet), Northern Alaskan Vowels, Seward Peninsula Consonants, Seward Peninsula Vowels
• InupiaqWords YouTube account
• https://scholarship.rice.edu/bitstream/handle/1911/62097/3421210.PDF?sequence=1 — Linda A. Lanz's Grammar of Iñupiaq (Malimiutun) Morphosyntax. The majority of grammar introduced on this Wikipedia page is cited from this grammar. Lanz's explanations are very detailed and thorough—a great source for gaining a more in-depth understanding of Iñupiaq grammar.