Italy has been inhabited by humanssince the Paleolithic. During antiquity, there were manypeoples in the Italian peninsula, includingEtruscans,Latins,Samnites,Umbri,Cisalpine Gauls, Greeks inMagna Graecia and others.[1][2] Most significantly, Italy was the cradle of theRoman civilization.[3][4]Rome was founded as a kingdom in 753 BC and became a republic in 509 BC. TheRoman Republic thenunified Italy forming a confederation of the Italic peoples androse to dominate Western Europe, Northern Africa, and the Near East. TheRoman Empire, established in 27 BC, ruled the Mediterranean region for centuries, contributing to the development of Western culture, philosophy, science and art.
During the Copper Age, Indoeuropean people migrated to Italy in four waves. A first Indoeuropean migration occurred around the mid-3rd millennium BC, from a population who importedcoppersmithing.[14] TheRemedello culture took over thePo Valley. The second wave occurred in theBronze Age, from the late 3rd to the early 2nd millennium BC, with tribes identified with theBeaker culture and by the use ofbronzesmithing, in thePadan Plain, inTuscany and on the coasts ofSardinia andSicily.[15][16] In the mid-2nd millennium BC, a third wave arrived, associated with theApenninian civilization and theTerramare culture.[17][18] The Terramare people were hunters, but had domesticated animals and cultivated crops; they were fairly skilful metallurgists, casting bronze in moulds.[19]In the late Bronze Age, from the late 2nd millennium to the early 1st millennium BC, a fourth wave, theProto-Villanovan culture, brought iron-working to the Italian peninsula. Proto-Villanovan culture may have been part of the central EuropeanUrnfield culture system,[20][21] or a derivation from Terramare culture.[22][23] Various authors, such asMarija Gimbutas, associated this culture with the spread of the proto-Italics into theItalian Peninsula.[20]
Born inSardinia andsouthern Corsica (where it is calledTorrean civilization), theNuraghe civilization lasted from the 18th century BC to the 2nd century AD.[24][25][26][27] They take their name from the characteristic Nuragic towers, which evolved from the pre-existing megalithic culture, which builtdolmens andmenhirs.[28] Today more than 7,000 nuraghes[29] appear in Sardinia.
No written records of this civilization have been discovered,[30] apart from a few possible short epigraphic documents.[31] The only written information comes from classical literature of theGreeks andRomans, and may be considered more mythological than historical.[32] The language (or languages) spoken in Sardinia during the Bronze Age is (are) unknown since there are no written records from the period, although research suggests that around the 8th century BC the Nuragic populations may have adopted an alphabet similar to that used inEuboea.[33]
TheEtruscan civilization flourished in central Italy after 800 BC. The main hypotheses on the origins of theEtruscans are that they are indigenous,[34] probably stemming from theVillanovan culture, or that they are the result of invasion from the north or theNear East. A 2007 study has suggested aNear Eastern origin.[35] The researchers conclude that their data, taken from the modern Tuscan population, "support the scenario of a post-Neolithic genetic input from the Near East to the present-day population of Tuscany". In the absence of any dating evidence, there is however no direct link between this genetic input and the Etruscans. By contrast, amitochondrial DNA study of 2013 has suggested that the Etruscans were probably an indigenous population. Among ancient populations, ancient Etruscans are found to be closest to a Neolithic population from Central Europe.[34]
It is widely accepted that Etruscans spoke a non-Indo-European language. Some inscriptions in a similar language, known asLemnian, have been found on the Aegean island ofLemnos. Etruscans were a monogamous society that emphasized pairing. The historical Etruscans had achieved a form of state with remnants of chiefdom and tribal forms. The first attestations of anEtruscan religion can be traced to theVillanovan culture.[36]
Etruscan expansion was focused across theApennines. The political structure of the Etruscan culture was similar, albeit more aristocratic, to Magna Graecia in the south. The mining and commerce of metal, especially copper and iron, led to an enrichment of the Etruscans and to the expansion of their influence in the Italian peninsula and the westernMediterranean. Here their interests collided with those of the Greeks, especially in the 6th century BC, whenPhoceans of Italy founded colonies along the coast of France, Catalonia andCorsica. This led the Etruscans to ally themselves with theCarthaginians.[37][38]
Around 540 BC, theBattle of Alalia led to a new distribution of power in the western Mediterranean.Carthage expanded its sphere of influence at the expense of the Greeks, andEtruria saw itself relegated to Corsica. From the first half of the 5th century, the new international political situation meant the beginning of the Etruscan decline. In 480 BC, Etruria's ally Carthage was defeated by a coalition of Magna Graecia cities led bySyracuse.[37][38]
A few years later, in 474 BC, Syracuse's tyrantHiero defeated the Etruscans at theBattle of Cumae. Etruria's influence over the cities ofLatium and Campania weakened, and it was taken over by Romans andSamnites. In the 4th century, Etruria saw aGallic invasion end its influence over thePo valley and theAdriatic coast. Meanwhile,Rome had started annexing Etruscan cities. This led to the loss of their north provinces.Etruscia was assimilated by Rome around 500 BC.[37][38]
Necropolis of Banditaccia located inCerveteri, Lazio
In the region south of theTiber (Latium Vetus), theLatial culture of theLatins emerged, while in the north-east of the peninsula theEste culture of theVeneti appeared. Roughly in the same period, from their core area in central Italy (modern-dayUmbria andSabina), theOsco-Umbrians began to emigrate in various waves, through the process ofVer sacrum, the ritualized extension of colonies, in southern Latium,Molise and the whole southern half of the peninsula, replacing the previous tribes, such as theOpici and theOenotrians. This corresponds with the emergence of the Terni culture, which had strong similarities with the Celtic cultures of Hallstatt andLa Tène.[40]
Before and during the period of the arrival of the Greek and Phoenician immigrants, Sicily was already inhabited by native Italics in three major groups: theElymians in the west, theSicani in the centre, and theSicels (source of the name Sicily) in the east.[41]
It is generally believed that around2000 BC, theLigures occupied a large area of the peninsula, including much of north-western Italy and all of northern Tuscany. Since many scholars consider thelanguage of this ancient population to bePre-Indo-European, they are often not classified as Italics.[42]
By the mid-first millennium BC, the Latins ofRome were growing in power and influence. After the Latins had liberated themselves from Etruscan rule they acquired a dominant position among the Italic tribes. Frequent conflict between various Italic tribes followed; the best documented are theSamnite Wars.[43] The Latins eventually succeeded in unifying the Italic elements in the country. In the early first century BC, several Italic tribes, in particular theMarsi and the Samnites, rebelled against Roman rule (theSocial War). After Roman victory was secured, all peoples in Italy, except for theCelts of the Po Valley, were grantedRoman citizenship. In the subsequent centuries, Italic tribes adoptedLatin language and culture in a process known asRomanization.[43]
In the eighth and seventh centuries BC, for reasons including demographic crisis, the search for new commercial outlets and ports, and expulsion from their homeland, Greeks began to settle along the coast of Sicily and the southern part of the Italian peninsula, which became known asMagna Graecia.[45]
AfterPyrrhus of Epirus failed to stop the spread of Roman hegemony in 282 BC, the south fell under Roman domination. It was held by theByzantine Empire after thefall of Rome inthe West and even theLombards failed to consolidate it, though the centre of the south was theirs fromZotto's conquest in the final quarter of the 6th century.[46]
Little is certain about the history of the Roman Kingdom, as nearly no written records from that time survive, and the histories written during theRepublic andEmpire are largely based on legends. According to thefounding myth of Rome, the city wasfounded on 21 April 753 BC by twin brothersRomulus and Remus, who descended from theTrojan princeAeneas[47] and who were grandsons ofNumitor ofAlba Longa.Natale di Roma (Birthday of Rome) is an annual festival held inRome on 21 April to celebrate thefounding of the city.[48]
The traditional account of Roman history, which has come down throughLivy,Plutarch,Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and others, is that in Rome's first centuries, it was ruled by a succession of seven kings. TheGauls destroyed much of Rome's historical records when they sacked the city after theBattle of the Allia in 390 or 387 BC. With no contemporary records, all accounts of the kings must be carefully evaluated.[49]
Animation showing the growth and division ofAncient Rome, years AD
According to tradition and later writers such asLivy, theRoman Republic was established around 509 BC,[50] when the last of the seven kings of Rome,Tarquin the Proud, was deposed byLucius Junius Brutus. A system based on annually electedmagistrates and various representative assemblies was established.[51] Aconstitution set a series of checks and balances, and aseparation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised executive authority asimperium, or military command.[52] The consuls had to work with thesenate, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, orpatricians, but grew in size and power.[53]
In the 4th century BC, the Republic came under attack by theGauls, who initially prevailed and sacked Rome. The Romans then drove the Gauls back, led byCamillus. The Romansgradually subdued the other peoples on the peninsula.[54] The last threat to Romanhegemony in Italy came whenTarentum, a majorGreek colony, enlisted the aid ofPyrrhus of Epirus in 281 BC, but this effort failed.[55][56]
In the 3rd century BC, Rome had to face a new and formidable opponent:Carthage. In the threePunic Wars, Carthage was eventually destroyed and Rome gained control over Hispania, Sicily and North Africa. After defeating theMacedonian andSeleucid Empires in the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean.[57][58] The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms provoked a fusion between Roman and Greek cultures and the Roman elite, once rural, became a luxurious and cosmopolitan one. By this time Rome was a consolidated empire – in the military view – and had no major enemies.Roman armies occupied Spain in the early 2nd century BC but encountered stiff resistance. TheCeltiberian stronghold ofNumantia became the centre of Spanish resistance in the 140s and 130s BC.[59] Numantia fell and was razed to the ground in 133 BC. In 105 BC, the Celtiberians drove theCimbri andTeutones from northern Spain,[60] though these hadcrushed Roman arms in southern Gaul, inflicting 80,000 casualties on the Roman army. Theconquest of Hispania was completed in 19 BC—but at a heavy cost.[61]
TheRoman Forum, the commercial, cultural, and political centre of the city and the Republic, which housed the various offices and meeting places of the government
Towards the end of the 2nd century BC, a huge migration ofGermanic tribes took place, led by the Cimbri and the Teutones. These tribes overwhelmed the peoples with whom they came into contact and threatened Italy. At theBattle of Aquae Sextiae and theBattle of Vercellae the Germans were virtually annihilated. In these two battles the Teutones andAmbrones are said to have lost 290,000 men, and the Cimbri 220,000.[62]
In the mid-1st century BC, the Republic faced a period of political crisis and social unrest.Julius Caesar reconciled the two more powerful men in Rome:Marcus Licinius Crassus andPompey.[63] In 53 BC, the Triumvirate disintegrated at the death of Crassus. After being victorious in theGallic Wars, Caesarcrossed the Rubicon and invaded Rome in 49 BC, rapidly defeating Pompey. Caesar was eventually granted a dictatorship for perpetuity but was murdered in 44 BC.[64] Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil; without the dictator's leadership, Rome was ruled by his friend and colleague,Mark Antony.Octavian (Caesar's adopted son), along with Antony andMarcus Aemilius Lepidus,[65] established theSecond Triumvirate. Lepidus was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian inSicily. Antony settled in Egypt with his lover,Cleopatra VII, which was seen as an act of treason.[66]
Following Antony'sDonations of Alexandria, which gave Cleopatra the title of "Queen of Kings", and to their children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories, war between Octavian and Mark Antony broke out. Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in theBattle of Actium in 31 BC. Mark Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Rome thus possessed unchallengednaval supremacy in theNorth Sea,Atlantic coasts, Mediterranean,Red Sea, and theBlack Sea.
Octavian's leadership brought thezenith of the Roman civilization, which lasted for four decades. His adoption of the nameAugustus in 27 BC is usually taken by historians as the beginning of the Roman Empire. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers.[68][69][better source needed] The Senate granted Octavian a unique grade ofProconsularimperium, which gave him authority over all Proconsuls (military governors).[70] The unrulyimperial provinces at the borders, where the vast majority of the legions were stationed, were under the control of Augustus. The peacefulsenatorial provinces were under the control of the Senate. The Roman legions, which had reached an unprecedented number (around 50) because of the civil wars, were reduced to 28.[71]
Within Italy in times of peace, Roman magistrates exercised theImperium domi (police power) as an alternative to theImperium militiae (military power). Italy's inhabitants hadLatin Rights as well as religious and financial privileges.[citation needed]
Roman literature grew steadily in theGolden Age of Latin Literature, with poets likeVergil,Horace,Ovid andRufus. Augustus also continued the shifts on the calendar promoted by Caesar, and the month of August is named after him.[72] Augustus' enlightened rule resulted in 200 years of peace for the Empire, known asPax Romana.[73]
In the Principate, Italy was legally distinguished from the provinces, and along with some favored provincial communities, enjoyed immunity from theproperty tax andpoll tax. However, under the EmperorDiocletian, Italy lost these privileges and was subdivided intoprovinces.[74]
Despite its military strength, the Empire made few efforts to expand, the most notable being theconquest of Britain, begun by emperorClaudius (47), and emperorTrajan's conquest ofDacia (101–102, 105–106). In the 1st and 2nd centuries, Roman legions were also employed inintermittent warfare with the Germanic tribes to the north and theParthian Empire to the east. Meanwhile, armed insurrections (e.g. the Hebraic insurrection inJudea, 70) and brief civil wars (e.g. in 68 AD theyear of the four emperors) demanded the legions' attention. The seventy years ofJewish–Roman wars in the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century were exceptional in their duration and violence.[75] An estimated 1,356,460 Jews were killed as a result of theFirst Jewish Revolt;[76] theSecond Jewish Revolt (115–117) led to the death of more than 200,000 Jews;[77] and theThird Jewish Revolt (132–136) resulted in the death of 580,000 Jewish soldiers.[78]
Odoacer's rule ended when theOstrogoths, under the leadership ofTheodoric, conquered Italy. Decades later, the armies of Eastern EmperorJustinian entered Italy with the goal of re-establishing imperial Roman rule, which led to theGothic War that devastated the whole country with famine and epidemics. This ultimately allowed another Germanic tribe, theLombards, to take control over vast regions of Italy. In 751 the Lombards seizedRavenna, ending Byzantine rule in northern Italy. Facing a new Lombard offensive, the Papacy appealed to theFranks for aid.[79]
In 756 Frankish forces defeated the Lombards and gave the Papacy legal authority over much of central Italy, establishing thePapal States. In 800,Charlemagne was crowned emperor of what would become theHoly Roman Empire. After the death of Charlemagne (814), the new empire disintegrated under his weak successors, resulting in a power vacuum in Italy and coinciding with the rise of Islam in North Africa and the Middle East. In the South, there were attacks from theUmayyad Caliphate and theAbbasid Caliphate. In the North, there was a rising power ofcommunes. In 852, the Saracens tookBari and founded anemirate there. Islamic rule over Sicily was effective from 902.
In the 11th century, trade slowly recovered as the cities started to grow again and the Papacy regained its authority. TheInvestiture controversy, over whether secular authorities had any legitimate role in appointments to ecclesiastical offices, was resolved by theConcordat of Worms in 1122, although problems continued in many areas of Europe until the end of the medieval era. In the north, aLombard League of communes launched a successful effort to win autonomy from the Holy Roman Empire, defeating EmperorFrederick Barbarossa at theBattle of Legnano in 1176. In the south, theNormans occupied the Lombard and Byzantine possessions.[80]The few independent city-states were also subdued. During the same period, the Normans ended Muslim rule in Sicily. In 1130,Roger II of Sicily began his rule as the first king of the NormanKingdom of Sicily; he had succeeded in uniting all the Norman conquests in Southern Italy into one kingdom with a strong centralized government. In 1155, EmperorManuel Komnenos attempted to regain Southern Italy, but the attempt failed and in 1158 the Byzantines left Italy. The Norman Kingdom lasted until 1194 when Sicily was claimed by the GermanHohenstaufen Dynasty.
Between the 12th and 13th centuries, Italy developed a peculiar political pattern, significantly different from feudal Europe north of the Alps. The oligarchiccity-state became the prevalent form of government. Keeping direct Church control and Imperial power at arm's length, the many independent city-states prospered through commerce, ultimately creating the conditions for the artistic and intellectual changes produced by theRenaissance.[81][82] Northern cities and states were notable for theirmerchant republics, especially theRepublic of Venice.[83] Compared to feudal and absolute monarchies, the merchant republics enjoyed relative political freedom.[84]
During this period, many Italian cities developed republican forms of government, such as the republics ofFlorence,Lucca,Genoa,Venice andSiena. During the 13th and 14th centuries these cities became major financial and commercial centres.[86] Milan, Florence and Venice, among other city-states, played a crucial innovative role in financial development, devising the main instruments and practices of banking and new forms of social and economic organization.[84]
During the same period, Italy saw the rise of theMaritime Republics:Venice,Genoa,Pisa,Amalfi,Ragusa,Ancona,Gaeta andNoli.[87] From the 10th to the 13th centuries these cities built fleets of ships for their own protection and to support extensive trade networks across the Mediterranean, leading to an essential role in theCrusades. The maritime republics, especially Venice and Genoa, soon became Europe's main gateways to trade with the East, establishing colonies as far as theBlack Sea and often controlling most of the trade with theByzantine Empire and the Islamic Mediterranean world. Thecounty of Savoy expanded its territory into the peninsula in thelate Middle Ages, while Florence developed into a highly organized commercial and financial city-state, becoming for many centuries the European capital of silk, wool, banking and jewellery. Central and southern Italy was far poorer than the north. Rome was largely in ruins, and thePapal States were a loosely administered region with little law and order. Partly because of this, the Papacyhad relocated to Avignon in France. Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia had for some time been under foreign domination. TheBlack Death in 1348 killed perhaps one-third of Italy's population.[88]
The recovery from the demographic and economic disaster of the late Middle Ages led to a resurgence of cities, trade and economy. Italy was the main centre of the Renaissance, whose flourishing of the arts, architecture, literature, science, historiography, and political theory influenced all of Europe.[89][90] The Renaissance represented a "rebirth" not only of economy and urbanization but also of arts and science, fuelled by rediscoveries of ancient texts and the migration west into Italy of intellectuals fleeing theEastern Roman Empire. Thefall of Constantinople led to the migration ofGreek scholars and texts to Italy, fueling the rediscovery of Greco-RomanHumanism.[91][92][93] Humanist rulers such asFederico da Montefeltro andPope Pius II worked to establishideal cities, foundingUrbino andPienza respectively.Pico della Mirandola wrote theOration on the Dignity of Man, considered the manifesto ofRenaissance Humanism.
The Italian Renaissance began in Tuscany and spread south, having an especially significant impact on Rome, which was largely rebuilt by the Renaissance popes. The Tuscan variety of Italian came to predominate throughout the region, especially inRenaissance literature. Prominent authors of the era includePetrarch andGiovanni Boccaccio.Italian Renaissance painting andarchitecture exercised a dominant influence on subsequent European art. The Aldine Press, founded by the printerAldo Manuzio, developedItalic type and the small, relatively portable and inexpensive printed book that could be carried in one's pocket. In the early 16th century, Baldassare Castiglione withThe Book of the Courtier laid out his vision of the ideal gentleman and lady, whileNiccolò Machiavelli inThe Prince, laid down the foundation ofmodern philosophy, especially modernpolitical philosophy. It was also in direct conflict with the dominant Catholic andscholastic doctrines of the time.[94]
The Italian Renaissance was remarkable in economic development. Venice and Genoa were trade pioneers, first as maritime republics and then as regional states, followed by Milan, Florence, and the rest of northern Italy. Reasons for their early development include the relative military safety of Venetian lagoons, the high population density and the institutional structure which inspired entrepreneurs.[95]Venice was the first realinternational financial center, which slowly emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century.[96] Tradeablebonds were invented during this period.
Italian[a]explorers and navigators from the dominantmaritime republics, eager to find an alternative route to the Indies to bypass theOttoman Empire, played a key role in theAge of Discovery and European colonization of the Americas. The most notable among them wereChristopher Columbus, who is credited with discovering the New World;[97]John Cabot, the first European to set foot in "New Found Land" and explore parts of the North American continent in 1497;[98]Amerigo Vespucci, who first demonstrated in about 1501 that the New World was not Asia as initially conjectured but a different continent (America is named after him);[99] andGiovanni da Verrazzano, the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524.[100]Marco da Nizza explored the region that later becameArizona andNew Mexico in 1539.Henri de Tonti explored the Great Lakes region and co-founded New Orleans. Italian missionaries, includingAlessandro Geraldini,François-Joseph Bressani, andEusebio Kino, played a role in establishing Catholic missions in California. Kino explored and mapped the southwest and California.[101] In the beginning of the 15th century, adventurers and traders such asNiccolò Da Conti travelled as far as Southeast Asia.
Amerigo Vespucci, who first demonstrated in about 1501 that the New World was not Asia as initially conjectured but a different continent (America is named after him)
John Cabot, the first European to set foot in "New Found Land" and explore parts of the North American continent in 1497
Giovanni da Verrazzano, the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524
In the 14th century, Northern Italy was divided into warring city-states, the most powerful beingMilan,Florence,Pisa,Siena,Genoa,Ferrara,Mantua,Verona andVenice. High Medieval Northern Italy was further divided by the long-running battle for supremacy between the Papacy and theHoly Roman Empire. Warfare between the states was common, and invasion from outside Italy was confined to intermittent sorties ofHoly Roman Emperors. Since the 13th century, as armies became primarily composed ofmercenaries, prosperous city-states could field considerable forces despite their low populations. Over the 15th century, the most powerful city-states annexed their smaller neighbours: Florence tookPisa in 1406, Venice capturedPadua andVerona, while theDuchy of Milan annexed nearby areas includingPavia andParma.
The early Renaissance saw almost constant warfare on land and sea as the city-states vied for preeminence. On land, these wars were primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known ascondottieri, bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe (especially Germany and Switzerland) led largely by Italian captains.[102] Decades of fighting saw Florence, Milan and Venice emerge as the dominant players. These three powers agreed to thePeace of Lodi in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the next forty years. At sea, the main contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict, the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice proved to be a more powerful adversary, and with the decline of Genoese power during the 15th century Venice became pre-eminent on the seas.
Foreign invasions of Italy (theItalian Wars) began with the 1494 invasion by France that wreaked widespread devastation on Northern Italy and ended the independence of many of the city-states. Originally arising from dynastic disputes over the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples, the wars rapidly became a general struggle for power and territory. The French were routed by Holy Roman EmperorCharles V at theBattle of Pavia (1525) and again in theWar of the League of Cognac (1526–30). After years of inconclusive fighting and involvement by multiple countries, with thePeace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559), France renounced its claims in Italy, while the south of Italy remained under Spanish rule.[103]
Much of Venice's hinterland (but not the city itself) wasdevastated by the Turks in 1499 and plundered by theLeague of Cambrai in 1509. Worst of all was the 6 May 1527Sack of Rome by mutinous German mercenaries that all but ended the role of the Papacy as the largest patron of Renaissance art. The longSiege of Florence (1529–1530) brought the destruction of its suburbs, the ruin of its export business and the confiscation of its citizens' wealth. Italy's urban population halved; ransoms paid to the invaders and emergency taxes drained the finances. The wool and silk industries of Lombardy collapsed when their looms were wrecked by invaders. The defensive tactic of scorched earth only slightly delayed the invaders, and made the recovery much longer.[104]
Contemporary engraving of Naples during theNaples Plague in 1656
The 17th century was a tumultuous period in Italian history, marked by deep political and social changes. These included the increase of Papal power in the peninsula and the influence of the Catholic Church at the peak of theCounter Reformation, the Catholic reaction against the ProtestantReformation. From thePeace of Cateau-Cambrésis to theWar of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish Habsburgs ruled Sicily, Naples, and Milan; these territories passed to theAustrian Habsburgs in 1700.
Despite important artistic and scientific achievements, such as the discoveries ofGalileo and the flourishing ofBaroque style, after 1600 Italy experienced an economic catastrophe. In 1600 Northern and Central Italy comprised one of the most advanced industrial areas of Europe, with an exceptionally high standard of living.[105] By 1870 Italy was an economically backward and depressed area; its industrial structure had almost collapsed, its population was too high for its resources, its economy had become primarily agricultural. Wars, political fractionalization, limited fiscal capacity and the shift of world trade to north-western Europe and the Americas were key factors.[106][107]The growing importance of the Atlantic trade undermined the importance of Venice as a commercial hub.[108] Spain's involvement in theThirty Years' War (1618–48), financed in part by taxes on its Italian possessions, heavily drained the commerce and agriculture of the south; as Spain declined, it dragged its Italian domains down with it, spreading conflicts and revolts (such as the Neapolitan 1647 tax-related "Revolt of Masaniello").[109]Theplague of 1630 that ravagednorthern Italy, notably Milan and Venice, claimed possibly one million lives, or about 25% of the population.[110] The plague of 1656 killed up to 43% of the population of theKingdom of Naples.[111] Historians believe the dramatic reduction in population (and, thus, in economic activity) contributed to Italy's downfall as a major commercial and political centre.[112] By one estimate, while in 1500 the GDP of Italy was 106% of the French GDP, by 1700 it was only 75% of it.[113]
TheWar of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) was triggered by the death without issue of the last Habsburg king of Spain,Charles II, who fixed the Spanish inheritance onPhilip, Duke of Anjou, the grandson of KingLouis XIV of France. In face of the threat of a French hegemony over much of Europe, aGrand Alliance between Austria, England, the Dutch Republic and other minor powers (including theDuchy of Savoy) was signed inThe Hague. The Alliance successfully fought and defeated the Franco-Spanish "Party of the Two Crowns", and the subsequentTreaty of Utrecht andRastatt passed control of much of Italy (Milan, Naples and Sardinia) from Spain to Austria, while Sicily was ceded to the Duchy of Savoy. Spain attempted to retake territories in Italy and to claim the French throne in theWar of the Quadruple Alliance (1718–1720), but was again defeated. As a result of theTreaty of The Hague, Spain agreed to abandon its Italian claims, while DukeVictor Amadeus II of Savoy agreed to exchange Sicily with Austria for the island of Sardinia, after which he was known as theKing of Sardinia. The Spaniards regained Naples and Sicily following theBattle of Bitonto in 1738.Corsica passed from theRepublic of Genoa to France in 1769 after theTreaty of Versailles.Italian was the official language of Corsica until 1859.[114]
At the end of the 18th century, Italy was almost in the same political conditions as in the 16th century; the main differences were thatAustria had replaced Spain as the dominant foreign power (though theWar of the Polish Succession resulted in the re-installment of the Spanish in the south, as theHouse of Bourbon-Two Sicilies), and that the dukes ofSavoy had become kings ofSardinia. In 1796 the FrenchArmy of Italy underNapoleon invaded Italy, with the aims of forcing theFirst Coalition to abandon Sardinia and forcing Austria to withdraw from Italy. Within only two weeksVictor Amadeus III of Sardinia was forced to sign an armistice. Napoleon then entered Milan, where he was welcomed as a liberator. Subsequently, beating off Austrian counterattacks and continuing to advance, he arrived in theVeneto in 1797. Here occurred theVeronese Easters, an act of rebellion against French oppression, that tied down Napoleon for about a week.
Napoleon conquered most of Italy in 1797–99. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon'sCisalpine Republic was centered on Milan. Genoa the city became a republic while its hinterland became theLigurian Republic. TheRoman Republic was formed out of the papal holdings while the pope himself was sent to France. TheNeapolitan Republic was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months before the Coalition recaptured it. In 1805, he formed theKingdom of Italy, with himself as king and his stepson as viceroy. All these new countries were satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.[115]
In 1805, after the French victory over theThird Coalition and thePeace of Pressburg, Napoleon recovered Veneto andDalmatia, annexing them to the Italian Republic and renaming it theKingdom of Italy. Also that year a second satellite state, theLigurian Republic (successor to the oldRepublic of Genoa), was pressured into merging with France. In 1806, he conquered theKingdom of Naples and granted it to his brother and then (from 1808) toJoachim Murat, along with marrying his sistersElisa andPaolina off to the princes ofMassa-Carrara andGuastalla. In 1808, he annexed Marche and Tuscany to the Kingdom of Italy. In 1809, Bonaparte occupied Rome,[121] exiling the Pope first to Savona and then to France.
After Russia, the other states of Europe re-allied themselves and defeated Napoleon at theBattle of Leipzig, after which his Italian allied states abandoned him to ally with Austria.[122] As Napoleon's reign began to fail, other national monarchs he had installed tried to keep their thrones by feeding nationalistic sentiments. Among these was the viceroy of Italy,Eugène de Beauharnais, who tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to the Kingdom of Italy, andJoachim Murat, who called for Italian patriots' help for the unification of Italy under his rule.[123] Napoleon was defeated on 6 April 1814. The resultingCongress of Vienna (1814) restored a situation close to that of 1795, dividing Italy between Austria (in the north-east and Lombardy), theKingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of theTwo Sicilies (in the south and in Sicily), andTuscany, thePapal States and other minor states in the centre. However, old republics such asVenice andGenoa were not recreated, Venice went to Austria, and Genoa went to theKingdom of Sardinia.
On Napoleon's return to France (theHundred Days), he regained Murat's support, but Murat proved unable to convince the Italians to fight for Napoleon with hisProclamation of Rimini and was beaten and killed. The Italian kingdoms thus fell, and Italy's Restoration period began, with many pre-Napoleonic sovereigns returned to their thrones. Piedmont, Genoa and Nice came to be united, as did Sardinia (which went on to create the State of Savoy), while Lombardy, Veneto, Istria and Dalmatia were re-annexed to Austria. The dukedoms of Parma and Modena re-formed, and the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples returned to the Bourbons. The political and social events in the restoration period of Italy (1815–1835) led to popular uprisings throughout the peninsula and greatly shaped what would become the Italian Wars of Independence. All this led to a newKingdom of Italy andItalian unification. Frederick Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained:
For nearly two decades the Italians had the excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries. ... Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the Italians had begun to be aware of a common nationality.[124]
Napoleon, far more Italian than French, Italian by race, by instinct, imagination, and souvenir, considers in his plan the future of Italy, and, on casting up the final accounts of his reign, we find that the net loss is for France and the net profit is for Italy.[125]
Animated map of the Italian unification from 1829 to 1871
TheRisorgimento was the political and social process that unified different states of theItalian Peninsula. It is difficult to pin down exact dates for the beginning and end of Italian reunification, but most scholars agree that it began with the end ofNapoleonic rule and theCongress of Vienna in 1815, and approximately ended with theFranco-Prussian War in 1871, though the last"città irredente" did not join until the Italian victory inWorld War I.
In 1820, Spaniards successfullyrevolted over disputes about their Constitution, which influenced the development of a similar movement in Italy. A regiment in the army of theKingdom of Two Sicilies, commanded byGuglielmo Pepe, aCarbonaro (member of the secret republican organization),[126] mutinied, conquering the peninsular part of Two Sicilies. The king,Ferdinand I, agreed to enact a new constitution. The revolutionaries, though, failed to court popular support and fell to Austrian troops of theHoly Alliance. Ferdinand abolished the constitution and began systematically persecuting revolutionaries, many of whom were forced into exile.[127]
Giuseppe Mazzini (left), highly influential leader of the Italian revolutionary movement; andGiuseppe Garibaldi (right), celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times[128] and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe,[129] who fought in many military campaigns that led toItalian unification
The leader of the 1821 revolutionary movement inPiedmont wasSantorre di Santarosa, who wanted to remove the Austrians and unify Italy under theHouse of Savoy. The Piedmont revolt started inAlessandria. The king's regent, princeCharles Albert, acting while the kingCharles Felix was away, approved a newconstitution to appease the revolutionaries, but when the king returned he disavowed the constitution and requested assistance from theHoly Alliance. Di Santarosa's troops were defeated, and the would-be Piedmontese revolutionary fled toParis.[130]Artistic and literary sentiment also turned towards nationalism; perhaps the most famous of proto-nationalist works wasAlessandro Manzoni'sI promessi sposi (The Betrothed), published in 1827. The 1840 version ofI promessi sposi used a standardized version of theTuscan dialect, a conscious effort by the author to provide a language and force people to learn it.
At the time, the struggle for Italian unification was perceived to be waged primarily against theAustrian Empire and theHabsburgs, since they directly controlled the predominantly Italian-speaking northeastern part of present-day Italy and were the single most powerful force against unification. The Austrian Empire vigorously repressed nationalist sentiment. Austrian Chancellor Franz Metternich, an influential diplomat at the Congress of Vienna, stated that the wordItaly was nothing more than "a geographic expression."[131] Those in favour of unification also faced opposition from theHoly See, particularly after failed attempts to broker a confederation with thePapal States, which would have left the Papacy with some measure of autonomy over the region.Pius IX feared that giving up power in the region could mean the persecution of Italian Catholics.[132]
Even among those who wanted to see the peninsula unified, different groups could not agree on what form a unified state would take.Vincenzo Gioberti suggested a confederation of Italian states under the rulership of the Pope. His book,Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians, was published in 1843 and created a link between the Papacy and the Risorgimento. Many leading revolutionaries wanted a republic, but eventually, it was aking and hischief minister who had the power to unite the Italian states as a monarchy.
One of the most influential revolutionary groups was theCarbonari (charcoal burners), a secret organization formed in southern Italy early in the 19th century. Inspired by the principles of theFrench Revolution, its members were mainly drawn from the middle class and intellectuals. After the Congress of Vienna, theCarbonari movement spread into the Papal States, theKingdom of Sardinia, theGrand Duchy of Tuscany, theDuchy of Modena and theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. The revolutionaries were so feared that the reigning authorities passed an ordinance condemning to death anyone who attended a Carbonari meeting. TheCarbonari condemnedNapoleon III to death for failing to unite Italy, and the group almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858. Many leaders of the unification movement were at one time members of this organization.In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the songIl Canto degli Italiani, the Italiannational anthem since 1946, took place.[133]Two prominent radical figures in the unification movement wereGiuseppe Mazzini andGiuseppe Garibaldi. The more conservative constitutional monarchic figures included theCount of Cavour andVictor Emmanuel II, who would later become the firstking of a united Italy. Mazzini's activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined. While in prison, he concluded that Italy could – and therefore should – be unified and formulated his program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with Rome as its capital. After Mazzini's release in 1831, he went toMarseille, where he organized a new political society calledLa Giovine Italia (Young Italy) seeking the unification of Italy. Garibaldi participated in an uprising inPiedmont in 1834, was sentenced to death, and escaped to South America. He returned to Italy in 1848. The creation of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of concerted efforts by Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to theHouse of Savoy to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entireItalian Peninsula.
Sardinia industrialized from 1830 onward. A constitution, theStatuto Albertino was enacted in the year of revolutions, 1848, under liberal pressure. Under the same pressure, theFirst Italian War of Independence was declared on Austria. After initial success, the war took a turn for the worse and the Kingdom of Sardinia lost.
After theRevolutions of 1848, the apparent leader of the Italian unification movement was Garibaldi, popular amongst southern Italians.[134] Garibaldi led the Italian republican drive for unification in southern Italy, but the northern Italian monarchy of theHouse of Savoy in theKingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia whose government was led byCamillo Benso, Count of Cavour, also had the ambition of establishing a united Italian state. Although the kingdom had no physical connection to Rome (deemed the natural capital of Italy), the kingdom had successfully challengedAustria in theSecond Italian War of Independence, liberatingLombardy–Venetia from Austrian rule. On the basis of thePlombières Agreement, the Kingdom of Sardinia cededSavoy andNice to France, an event that caused theNiçard exodus, that was the emigration of a quarter of theNiçard Italians to Italy.[135] The kingdom also had established important alliances which helped it improve the possibility of Italian unification, such asBritain and France in theCrimean War.
Garibaldi was elected in 1871 in Nice at theNational Assembly where he tried to promote the annexation of his hometown to the Italian unitary state, but he was prevented from speaking.[136] Because of this denial, between 1871 and 1872 there were riots in Nice, promoted by the Garibaldini and called "Niçard Vespers",[137] which demanded the annexation of the city and its area to Italy.[138] Fifteen Nice people who participated in the rebellion were tried and sentenced.[139]
The transition was not smooth for the south (the "Mezzogiorno"). The path to unification and modernization created a divide between Northern and Southern Italy calledSouthern question. The entire region south of Naples was afflicted with numerous deep economic and social liabilities.[140] However, many of the South's political problems and its reputation of being "passive" or lazy (politically speaking) was due to the new government that alienated the South. On the other hand, transportation was difficult, soil fertility was low with extensive erosion, deforestation was severe, many businesses could stay open only because of high protective tariffs, large estates were often poorly managed, most peasants had only very small plots, and there was chronic unemployment and high crime rates.[141]
Cavour decided the basic problem was poor government, and believed that could be remedied by strict application of the Piedmontese legal system. The main result was an upsurge inbrigandage, which turned into a bloody civil war that lasted almost ten years. The insurrection reached its peak mainly inBasilicata and northernApulia, headed by the brigandsCarmine Crocco and Michele Caruso.[142] With the end of the southern riots, there was an outflow of millions of peasants in theItalian diaspora, especially to the United States and South America. Others relocated to the northern industrial cities such as Genoa, Milan and Turin, and sent money home.[141]
The first Italian diaspora began around 1880 and ended in the 1920s to the early 1940s with the rise ofFascist Italy.[143] Poverty was the main reason for emigration, specifically the lack of land asmezzadriasharecropping flourished in Italy, especially in the South, and property became subdivided over generations. Especially inSouthern Italy, conditions were harsh.[143] Until the 1860s to 1950s, most of Italy was arural society with many small towns and cities and almost no modern industry in which land management practices, especially in the South and theNortheast, did not easily convince farmers to stay on the land and to work the soil.[144]
Another factor was related to the overpopulation of Southern Italy as a result of the improvements in socioeconomic conditions afterUnification.[145] That created a demographic boom and forced the new generations to emigrate en masse in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, mostly to theAmericas.[146] The new migration of capital created millions of unskilled jobs around the world and was responsible for the simultaneous mass migration of Italians searching for "work and bread" (Italian:pane e lavoro).[147]
Unification broke down the feudal land system, which had survived in the south since the Middle Ages, especially where land had been the inalienable property of aristocrats, religious bodies or the king. The breakdown offeudalism, however, and redistribution of land did not necessarily lead to small farmers in the south winding up owning arable land. Many remained landless, and plots grew smaller and smaller and so less and less productive, as land was subdivided amongst heirs.[144] Between 1860 and World War I, at least 9 million Italians left permanently of a total of 16 million who emigrated, most travelling to North or South America.[148][146]
Parliamentary democracy developed considerably in the 19th century. The SardinianStatuto Albertino of 1848, extended to the wholeKingdom of Italy in 1861, provided for basic freedoms, but the electoral laws excluded the non-propertied and uneducated classes from voting. Italy's political arena was sharply divided between broad camps of left and right which created frequent deadlock and attempts to preserve governments.Marco Minghetti lost power in 1876 and was replaced by theDemocratAgostino Depretis, who began a period of political dominance in the 1880s, but continued attempts to appease the opposition to hold power.
Depretis began his term by initiating an experimental political idea calledTrasformismo (transformism). The theory ofTrasformismo was that a cabinet should select a variety of moderates and capable politicians from a non-partisan perspective. In practice,trasformismo was authoritarian and corrupt: Depretis pressured districts to vote for his candidates if they wished to gain favourable concessions from Depretis when in power, resulting in only four representatives from the right being elected in 1876. Depretis put through authoritarian measures, such as banning public meetings, placing "dangerous" individuals in internal exile on remote penal islands, and adopting militarist policies. Depretis enacted controversial legislation for the time, such as abolishing arrest for debt, making elementary education free and compulsory while ending compulsory religious teaching in elementary schools.[151] The first government of Depretis collapsed after his dismissal of his Interior Minister, and ended with his resignation in 1877. The second government of Depretis started in 1881. Depretis' goals included widening suffrage in 1882 and increasing the tax intake from Italians by expanding the minimum requirements of who could pay taxes and the creation of a new electoral system.[152] In 1887, Depretis was finally pushed out of office after years of political decline.
Francesco Crispi was prime minister from 1887 until 1891 and again from 1893 until 1896. Historian R.J.B. Bosworth says of his foreign policy that Crispi "pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled until the days of the Fascist regime... His policies were ruinous, both for Italy's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colonial ambitions in East Africa."[153] Crispi's major concerns during 1887–91 was protecting Italy from Austria-Hungary. Crispi worked to build Italy as a great world power through increased military expenditures, advocation of expansionism, and trying to win Germany's favor even by joining theTriple Alliance. While helping Italy develop strategically, he continuedtrasformismo and was authoritarian, once suggesting the use of martial law to ban opposition parties. Despite being authoritarian, Crispi put through liberal policies such as the Public Health Act of 1888 and establishing tribunals for redress against abuses by the government.[154]
The overwhelming attention paid to foreign policy alienated the agricultural community which needed help. Both radical and conservative forces in the Italian parliament demanded that the government investigate how to improve agriculture.[155] The investigation showed that agriculture was not improving, that landowners were swallowing up revenue from their lands and contributing almost nothing to development of the land. There was aggravation by lower class Italians to the break-up of communal lands which benefited only landlords. Most of the workers on the agricultural lands were not peasants but short-term labourers who at best were employed for one year. Peasants without stable income were forced to live off meager food supplies, disease was spreading rapidly, plagues were reported, including a majorcholera epidemic which killed at least 55,000 people.[156] The Italian government could not deal with the situation effectively due to the mass overspending that left Italy in huge debt. Italy also suffered economically because of overproduction of grapes in the 1870s and 1880s when France's vineyard industry was suffering from vine disease. Italy during that time prospered as the largest exporter of wine in Europe but following the recovery of France in 1888, southern Italy was overproducing and had to split in two which caused greater unemployment and bankruptcies.[157]
From 1901 to 1914, Italian history and politics was dominated byGiovanni Giolitti. He first confronted the wave of widespread discontent that Crispi's policy had provoked: no more authoritarian repression, but acceptance of protests and therefore of strikes, as long as they are neither violent nor political, with the (successful) aim of bringing the socialists in the political life of the country.[158][159] Giolitti's most important interventions were social and labor legislation, universal male suffrage, the nationalization of the railways and insurance companies, the reduction of state debt, and the development of infrastructure and industry. In foreign policy, there was a movement away from Germany and Austria-Hungary and toward theTriple Entente of France, Britain and Russia.
Starting from the late 19th century, Italy developed its own colonial Empire. It took control ofSomalia. Its attempt to occupy Ethiopia failed in theFirst Italo–Ethiopian War of 1895–1896. In 1911, Giolitti's government sent forces to occupy Libya and declared war on theOttoman Empire. Italy soon annexed Libya (then divided inTripolitania andCyrenaica) and theDodecanese Islands after theItalo-Turkish War. Nationalists advocated Italy's domination of the Mediterranean Sea by occupying Greece as well as the Adriatic coastal region ofDalmatia but no attempts were made.[160] In June 1914 the left became repulsed by the government after the killing of three anti-militarist demonstrators. TheItalian Socialist Party declared a general strike in Italy. The protests that ensued became known as "Red Week", as leftists rioted and various acts of civil disobedience occurred such as seizing railway stations, cutting telephone wires and burning tax-registers.
The war forced the decision whether to honour the alliance with Germany and Austria. For six months, Italy remained neutral, as theTriple Alliance was only for defensive purposes. Italy took the initiative in entering the war in spring 1915, despite strong popular and elite sentiment in favour of neutrality. Italy was, since its unification, theleast of the great powers: a relatively large, but only partially industrialized country, whose political system was chaotic; its finances were heavily strained, and its army had not been prepared for a long conflict.[164] The Triple Alliance meant little either to Italians or Austrians. Prime MinisterAntonio Salandra and Foreign MinisterSidney Sonnino negotiated with both sides in secret for the best deal, and got one from the Entente, which was quite willing to promise large slices of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, including theTyrol andTrieste, as well as makingAlbania a protectorate. Russia vetoed giving ItalyDalmatia. Britain was willing to pay subsidies and loans to get 36 million Italians as new allies who threatened the southern flank of Austria.[165]
When theTreaty of London was announced in May 1915, there was an uproar from antiwar elements. Reports from around Italy showed the people feared war, and cared little about territorial gains. Pro-war supporters mobbed the streets. The fervor for war represented a bitterly hostile reaction against politics as usual, and the failures, frustrations, and stupidities of the ruling class.[166][167]Benito Mussolini created the newspaperIl Popolo d'Italia, which at first attempted to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war.[168] TheAllied Powers, eager to draw Italy to the war, helped finance the newspaper.[169] Later, after the war, this publication would become the official newspaper of the Fascist movement.
Italy entered the war with an army of 875,000 men, but the Austrians had terrain advantage and superior artillery and machine guns. Italy's war supplies had also been depleted inthe war of 1911–12 against Turkey. Italy fought a long trench warfare, with fighting raging for three years on front along theAlps and theIsonzo River, and later on thePiave river. In 1916, Italy declared war on Germany. Some 650,000 Italian soldiers died and 950,000 were wounded, while the economy required large-scale Allied funding to survive.[170][171]
Before the war the government had ignored labor issues, but now it had to intervene to mobilize war production. With the main working-class Socialist party reluctant to support the war effort, strikes were frequent and cooperation was minimal, especially in the Socialist strongholds of Piedmont and Lombardy. The government imposed high wage scales, as well as collective bargaining and insurance schemes.[172] Many large firms expanded dramatically. Inflation doubled the cost of living. Industrial wages kept pace but not wages for farm workers. Discontent was high in rural areas since so many men were taken for service, industrial jobs were unavailable, wages grew slowly and inflation was just as bad.[173]
The Italian victory,[174][175][176] which was announced by theBollettino della Vittoria and theBollettino della Vittoria Navale, marked the end of the war on the Italian Front, secured the dissolution of theAustro-Hungarian Empire and was chiefly instrumental inending the First World War less than two weeks later. More than 651,000 Italian soldiers died on the battlefields.[177] The Italian civilian deaths were estimated at 589,000 due to malnutrition and food shortages.[178] In November 1918, after the surrender of Austria-Hungary, Italy occupied militarilyTrentino Alto-Adige, theJulian March,Istria, theKvarner Gulf andDalmatia, all Austro-Hungarian territories. On the Dalmatian coast, Italy established theGovernorate of Dalmatia, which had the provisional aim of ferrying the territory towards full integration into the Kingdom of Italy, progressively importing national legislation in place of the previous one. The administrative capital wasZara. The Governorate of Dalmatia was evacuated following the Italo-Yugoslav agreements which resulted in theTreaty of Rapallo (1920), although Zara was annexed.
The celebration of the birthday of the Italian KingVictor Emmanuel III on 11 November 1918, in Rijeka
Furious over the peace settlement, the Italian nationalist poetGabriele D'Annunzio led disaffected war veterans and nationalists to form theFree State of Fiume in September 1919. His popularity among nationalists led him to be calledIl Duce ("The Leader"), and he used black-shirted paramilitary in his assault on Fiume. The leadership title ofDuce and the blackshirt paramilitary uniform would later be adopted by thefascist movement ofBenito Mussolini. The demand for the Italian annexation of Fiume spread to all sides of the political spectrum.[179] The Italians claimed Fiume on the principle of self-determination, disregarding its mainly Slavic suburb ofSušak.[180]
The subsequentTreaty of Rome (1924) led to the annexation of the city ofFiume to Italy. Italy's lack of territorial gain led to the outcome being denounced as amutilated victory. The rhetoric ofmutilated victory was adopted by Mussolini and led to therise ofItalian fascism, becoming a key point in thepropaganda of Fascist Italy. Historians regardmutilated victory as a "political myth", used by fascists to fuelItalian imperialism and obscure the successes ofliberal Italy in the aftermath of World War I.[181] Italy also gained a permanent seat in theLeague of Nations's executive council.
Benito Mussolini created theFasci di Combattimento or Combat League in 1919. It was originally dominated by patriotic socialist andsyndicalist veterans who opposed the pacifist policies of the Italian Socialist Party. This early Fascist movement had a platform more inclined to the left, promising social revolution, proportional representation in elections, women's suffrage (partly realized in 1925) and dividing rural private property held by estates.[182][183] They also differed from later Fascism by opposingcensorship,militarism anddictatorship.[184]
At the same time, the so-calledBiennio Rosso (red biennium) took place in the two years following the war in a context of economic crisis, high unemployment and political instability. The 1919–20 period was characterized by mass strikes, worker manifestations as well as self-management experiments through land and factory occupations. InTurin andMilan,workers councils were formed and manyfactory occupations took place under the leadership ofanarcho-syndicalists. The agitations also extended to the agricultural areas of thePadan plain and were accompanied by peasant strikes, rural unrests and guerilla conflicts between left-wing and right-wing militias. Thenceforth, the Fasci di Combattimento (forerunner of theNational Fascist Party, 1921) successfully exploited the claims of Italian nationalists and the quest for order and normalization of the middle class. In October 1922, Mussolini took advantage of a general strike to announce his demands to the Italian government to give the Fascist Party political power or face a coup. With no immediate response, a group of 30,000 Fascists began a long trek across Italy to Rome (theMarch on Rome), claiming that Fascists were intending to restore law and order. The Fascists demanded Prime MinisterLuigi Facta's resignation and that Mussolini be named to the post. Although the Italian Army was far better armed than the Fascist militias, the liberal system and KingVictor Emmanuel III were facing a deeper political crisis. The King was forced to choose which of the two rival movements in Italy would form the government: Mussolini's Fascists, or the marxistItalian Socialist Party. He selected the Fascists.
Mussolini formed a coalition with nationalists and liberals, and in 1923 passed the electoralAcerbo Law, which assigned two thirds of the seats to the party that achieved at least 25% of the vote. The Fascist Party used violence and intimidation to achieve the threshold in the1924 election, thus obtaining control of Parliament. Socialist deputyGiacomo Matteotti was assassinated after calling for a nullification of the vote. The parliament opposition responded to Matteotti's assassination with theAventine Secession.
Over the next four years, Mussolini eliminated nearly all checks and balances on his power. On 24 December 1925, he passed a law that declared he was responsible to the king alone, making him the sole person able to determine Parliament's agenda. Local governments were dissolved, and appointed officials (called "Podestà") replaced elected mayors and councils. In 1928, all political parties were banned, and parliamentary elections were replaced by plebiscites in which the Grand Council of Fascism nominated a single list of 400 candidates.Christopher Duggan argues that his regime exploited Mussolini's popular appeal and forged a cult of personality that served as the model that was emulated by dictators of other fascist regimes of the 1930s.[185]
In summary, historianStanley G. Payne says that Fascism in Italy was:
A primarily political dictatorship. The Fascist Party itself had become almost completely bureaucratized and subservient to, not dominant over, the state itself. Big business, industry, and finance retained extensive autonomy, particularly in the early years. The armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomy. ... The Fascist militia was placed under military control. The judicial system was left largely intact and relatively autonomous as well. The police continued to be directed by state officials and were not taken over by party leaders, nor was a major new police elite created. There was never any question of bringing the Church under overall subservience. Sizable sectors of Italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy, and no major state propaganda-and-culture ministry existed. The Mussolini regime was neither especially sanguinary nor particularly repressive.[186]
Vatican and Italian delegations prior to signing theLateran Treaty
During theunification of Italy in the mid-19th century, thePapal States resisted incorporation into the new nation. The nascent Kingdom of Italy invaded and occupiedRomagna (the eastern portion of the Papal States) in 1860, leaving onlyLatium in the pope's domains. Latium, including Rome itself, wasoccupied and annexed in 1870. For the following sixty years, relations between the Papacy and the Italian government were hostile, and the status of the pope became known as the "Roman Question".
TheLateran Treaty was one component of the Lateran Pacts of 1929, agreements between the Kingdom of Italy under KingVictor Emmanuel III of Italy and theHoly See underPope Pius XI to settle the question. The treaty and associated pacts were signed on 11 February 1929.[187] The treaty recognizedVatican City as anindependent state under the sovereignty of the Holy See. The Italian government also agreed to give the RomanCatholic Church financial compensation for the loss of thePapal States.[188] In 1948, the Lateran Treaty was recognized in theConstitution of Italy as regulating the relations between the state and the Catholic Church.[189] The treaty was significantly revised in 1984, ending the status of Catholicism as the sole state religion.
Lee identifies three major themes in Mussolini's foreign policy. The first was a continuation of the foreign-policy objectives of the preceding Liberal regime. Liberal Italy had allied itself with Germany and Austria, and had great ambitions in the Balkans and North Africa. Ever since it had been badly defeated in Ethiopia in 1896, there was a strong demand for seizing that country. Second was a profound disillusionment after the heavy losses of the First World War; the small territorial gains from Austria were not enough to compensate. Third was Mussolini's promise to restore the pride and glory of theRoman Empire.[190]
Italian Fascism is based uponItalian nationalism and in particular, seeks to complete what it considers as the incomplete project ofRisorgimento by incorporatingItalia Irredenta (unredeemed Italy) into the state of Italy.[191][192] To the east of Italy, the Fascists claimed thatDalmatia was a land of Italian culture.[193] To the south, the Fascists claimedMalta, which belonged to the United Kingdom, andCorfu, which belonged to Greece, to the north claimedItalian Switzerland, while to the west claimedCorsica,Nice andSavoy, which belonged to France.[194][195]
Ambitions of fascist Italy in Europe in 1936. Legend:
Albania, which was a client state, was considered a territory to be annexed.
Mussolini promised to bring Italy back as agreat power in Europe, building a "New Roman Empire" and holding power over theMediterranean Sea. Inpropaganda, Fascists used the ancient Roman motto "Mare Nostrum" (Latin for "Our Sea") to describe the Mediterranean. For this reason the Fascist regime engaged ininterventionist foreign policy in Europe. In 1923, the Greek island ofCorfu was briefly occupied by Italy, after the assassination ofGeneral Tellini in Greek territory. In 1925,Albania came under heavy Italian influence as a result of theTirana Treaties, which also gave Italy a stronger position in the Balkans.[196] Relations with France were mixed. The Fascist regime planned to regain Italian-populated areas of France.[197] With the rise of Nazism, it became more concerned about the potential threat of Germany to Italy. Due to concerns about German expansionism, Italy joined theStresa Front with France and the United Kingdom, which existed from 1935 to 1936. The Fascist regime held negative relations with Yugoslavia, as it continued to claim Dalmatia.
During theSpanish Civil War between the socialistRepublicans andNationalists led byFrancisco Franco, Italy sent arms and over 60,000 troops to aid the Nationalist faction. This secured Italy's naval access to Spanish ports and increased Italian influence in the Mediterranean. During the 1930s, Italy strongly pursued a policy of naval rearmament; by 1940, theRegia Marina was the fourth-largest navy in the world.
Mussolini andAdolf Hitler first met in June 1934, when Mussolini opposed German plans to annex Austria to ensure that Nazi Germany would not become hegemonic in Europe. Public appearances and propaganda constantly portrayed the closeness of Mussolini and Hitler and the similarities between Italian Fascism and GermanNational Socialism. While both ideologies had significant similarities, the two factions were suspicious of each other, and both leaders were in competition for world influence.
Mussolini and Hitler in June 1940
In 1935 Mussolini decided to invadeEthiopia; 2,313 Italians and 275,000 Ethiopians died.[198] TheSecond Italo-Ethiopian War resulted in the international isolation of Italy; the only nation to back Italy's aggression was Germany. After being condemned by theLeague of Nations, Italy decided to leave the League on 11 December 1937.[199] Mussolini had little choice but to join Hitler in international politics, thus he reluctantly abandoned support of Austrian independence. Mussolini later supported German claims onSudetenland at theMunich Conference. In 1938, under the influence of Hitler, Mussolini supported the adoption of anti-semiticracial laws in Italy. After Germany annexedCzechoslovakia in March 1939,Italy invaded Albania and made it anItalian protectorate.
As war approached in 1939, the Fascist regime stepped up an aggressive press campaign against France claiming that its Italian residents were suffering.[200] This was important to the alliance as both regimes mutually had claims on France: Germany on German-populatedAlsace-Lorraine and Italy on the mixed Italian and French populatedNice andCorsica. In May 1939, a formal alliance with Germany was signed, known as thePact of Steel. Mussolini felt obliged to sign the pact in spite of his own concerns that Italy could not fight a war in the near future. This obligation grew from his promises to Italians that he would build an empire for them and from his personal desire to not allow Hitler to become the dominant leader in Europe.[201] Mussolini was repulsed by theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreement where Germany and theSoviet Union agreed to partition theSecond Polish Republic into German and Soviet zones for an impending invasion. The Fascist government saw this as a betrayal of theAnti-Comintern Pact, but decided to remain officially silent.[201]
Areas controlled by theItalian Empire during its existence
Kingdom of Italy
Colonies of Italy
Protectorates and areas occupied during World War II
When Germanyinvaded Poland on 1 September 1939 beginningWorld War II, Mussolini chose to staynon-belligerent, although he declared his support for Hitler. In drawing out war plans, Mussolini and the Fascist regime decided that Italy would aim to annex large portions of Africa and the Middle East. Hesitance remained from the King and military commanderPietro Badoglio who warned Mussolini that Italy had too fewtanks,armoured vehicles, and aircraft available to be able to carry out a long-term war.[202] Mussolini and the Fascist regime thus waited as France was invaded by Germany in June 1940 (Battle of France) before deciding to get involved.
Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940, fulfilling its obligations towards the Pact of Steel. Mussolini hoped to quickly captureSavoy, Nice, Corsica, and the African colonies of Tunisia and Algeria from the French, but Germany signed an armistice (22 June:Second Armistice at Compiègne) with MarshalPhilippe Pétain establishingVichy France, that retained control over southern France and colonies. This decision angered the Fascist regime.[203] In summer 1940, Mussolini ordered thebombing of Mandatory Palestine and theconquest of British Somaliland. In September, he ordered theinvasion of Egypt; despite initial success, Italian forces were soon driven back by the British (seeOperation Compass). Hitler had to intervene with the sending of theAfrika Korps that was the mainstay in theNorth African campaign.
Italian prisoners in El Alamein, November 1942
On 28 October, Mussolini launchedan attack on Greece. TheRoyal Air Force prevented the Italian invasion and allowed the Greeks to push the Italians back to Albania. Hitler came to Mussolini's aid by attacking the Greeks through the Balkans. TheBalkans Campaign had as a result the dissolution of Yugoslavia and Greece's defeat. Italy gainedsouthern Slovenia,Dalmatia,Montenegro and established the puppet states ofCroatia andHellenic State. By 1942, it was faltering as its economy failed to adapt to the conditions of war and Italian cities were being heavily bombed by the Allies. Also, despite Rommel's advances, the campaign in North Africa began to fail in late 1942. The complete collapse came after the decisive defeat atEl Alamein.
By 1943, Italy was losing on every front. Half of the Italian forcesfighting in the Soviet Union had been destroyed,[204] the African campaign had failed, the Balkans remained unstable, and Italians wanted an end to the war.[205]
There is controversy on the effectiveness of Italy's performance in World War II. Donald Detwiler notes that "Italy's entrance into the war showed very early that her military strength was only a hollow shell."[206] MacGregor Knox argues that it was "first and foremost a failure of Italy's military culture and military institutions."[207] Norman Polmar and Thomas B. Allen argue that "the Regia Aeronautica failed to perform effectively in modern conflict."[208] James Sadkovich argues that inferior equipment, overextension, and inter-service rivalries meant that Italians had "more than their share of handicaps." Several authors (James Sadkovich, Peter Haining,Vincent O'Hara, Ian Walker and others) have reassessed the performance of the Italian army, navy and air force, providing numerous examples of actions where Italian forces were effective. Gerhard L.Weinberg argues that "there is far too much denigration of the performance of Italy's forces during the conflict."[209]
Italian resistance, co-belligerence with the Allies and Liberation
Insurgents celebrating the liberation of Naples after theFour days of Naples (27–30 September 1943)
Soon after being ousted, Mussolini was rescued by a German commando inOperation Eiche ("Oak"). The Germans brought Mussolini to northern Italy where he set up a Fascist puppet state, theItalian Social Republic (RSI). Meanwhile, the Allies advanced in southern Italy. In September 1943,Naples rose against the occupying German forces. The Allies organized some royalist Italian troops into theItalian Co-Belligerent Army, while other troops continued to fight alongside Nazi Germany in theEsercito Nazionale Repubblicano, theNational Republican Army. A largeItalian resistance movement started a longguerrilla war against the German and Fascist forces,[210] while clashes between the Fascist RSI Army and the Royalist Italian Co-Belligerent Army were rare.[211] The Germans, often helped by Fascists, committed severalatrocities against Italian civilians in occupied zones, such as theArdeatine massacre and theSant'Anna di Stazzema massacre. The Kingdom of Italy declared war on Nazi Germany on 13 October 1943;[212][213] tensions between the Axis Powers and the Italian military were rising following the failure to defend Sicily.[212]
On 4 June 1944, the German occupation of Rome came to an end as the Allies advanced. The final Allied victory over the Axis in Italy did not come until the spring offensive of 1945, after Allied troops had breached theGothic Line, leading to the surrender of German and Fascist forces in Italy on 2 May shortly before Germany finally surrendered ending World War II in Europe on 8 May. It is estimated that between September 1943 and April 1945, some 60,000 Allied and 50,000 German soldiers died in Italy.[c]
On 25 April 1945 theNational Liberation Committee for Northern Italy proclaimed a general insurrection in all the territories still occupied by the Nazis, indicating to all the partisan forces active in Northern Italy that were part of the Volunteer Corps of Freedom to attack the fascist and German garrisons by imposing the surrender, days before the arrival of the Allied troops; at the same time, the National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy personally issued legislative decrees,[220] assuming power "in the name of the Italian people and as a delegate of the Italian Government", establishing among other things the death sentence for all fascist hierarchs,[221] Today the event is commemorated in Italy every 25 April by theLiberation Day,National Day introduced on 22 April 1946, which celebrates the liberation of the country fromfascism.[222]
Mussolini was captured on 27 April 1945 and the next day was executed for high treason. On 2 May 1945, the German forces in Italy surrendered. On 9 June 1944, Badoglio was replaced as prime minister by anti-fascist leaderIvanoe Bonomi. In June 1945 Bonomi was in turn replaced byFerruccio Parri, who in turn gave way toAlcide de Gasperi on 4 December 1945. Finally, De Gasperi supervised the transition to a Republic following the abdication of Vittorio Emanuele III on 9 May 1946, the one-month-long reign of his sonUmberto II ("King of May") and theConstitutional Referendum that abolished the monarchy; De Gasperi briefly became acting Head of State as well as prime minister on 18 June 1946, but ceded the former role to Provisional PresidentEnrico de Nicola ten days later.
Thedead body of Benito Mussolini, Claretta Petacci and other executed fascists on display in Milan
Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana (English:Italian Anti-Fascist Concentration), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934, trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitledLa Libertà.[229][230][231]Giustizia e Libertà (English:Justice and Freedom) was an Italiananti-fascistresistance movement, active from 1929 to 1945[232] which shared a belief in active, effective opposition to fascism, compared to the older Italian anti-fascist parties.Giustizia e Libertà also made the international community aware of the realities of fascism in Italy, thanks to the work ofGaetano Salvemini.
Between 1920 and 1943, several anti-fascist movements were active among theSlovenes andCroats in the territories annexed to Italy afterWorld War I, known as theJulian March.[233][234] The most influential was the militant insurgent organizationTIGR, which carried out numerous sabotages, as well as attacks on representatives of the Fascist Party and the military.[235][236] Most of the underground structure of the organization was discovered and dismantled by the OVRA in 1940 and 1941,[237] and after June 1941 most of its former activists joined theSlovene Partisans. Many members of theItalian resistance left their homes and went to live in the mountains, fighting against Italian fascists andGerman Nazi soldiers during theItalian Civil War. Many cities in Italy, includingTurin,Naples andMilan, were freed by anti-fascist uprisings.[238]
The symbolic photo of the birth of the Republic, which portrays the face of a young woman emerging from a copy ofIl Corriere della Sera of 6 June 1946 with the title «È nata la Repubblica Italiana» ("The Italian Republic is born").
The aftermath of World War II left Italy with a destroyed economy, a divided society, and anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the Fascist regime. These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement.[239]Umberto II was pressured by the threat of another civil war to call the1946 Italian institutional referendum to decide whether Italy should remain a monarchy or become a republic. On 2 June 1946, the republican side won 54% of the vote and Italy officially became a republic.
TheGeneral Elections of 1946, held at the same time as the Constitutional Referendum, elected 556 members of aConstituent Assembly. Anew constitution was approved, setting up aparliamentary democracy. In 1947, under American pressure, the communists were expelled from the government. TheItalian general election, 1948 saw a landslide victory for Christian Democrats, that dominated the system for the following forty years.
Italy joined theMarshall Plan (ERP) andNATO. By 1950, the economy had largely stabilized and started booming.[241] In 1957, Italy was a founding member of theEuropean Economic Community, which later transformed into the European Union (EU). The Marshall Plan's long-term legacy was to help modernize Italy's economy.[242] By 1953, industrial production had doubled compared with 1938 and the annual rate of productivity increase was 6.4%, twice the British rate.
TheFiat 500, launched in 1957, is considered a symbol of Italy's economic miracle.[243]
In the 1950s and 1960s, the country enjoyed a prolonged economic boom, which was accompanied by a dramatic rise in the standard of living of ordinary Italians.[244] The so-calledItalian economic miracle lasted almost uninterruptedly until the "Hot Autumn's" massive strikes and social unrest of 1969–70, that combined with the later1973 oil crisis, gradually cooled the economy. It has been calculated that the Italian economy experienced an average rate of growth of GDP of 5.8% per year between 1951 and 1963, and 5.0% per year between 1964 and 1973.[245] Between 1955 and 1971, around 9 million people are estimated to have been involved ininter-regional migrations in Italy, uprooting entire communities.[246] Emigration was especially directed to the factories of the so-called "industrial triangle", a region encompassed between the major manufacturing centres ofMilan andTurin and the seaport ofGenoa.
The needs of a modernizing economy demanded new transport and energy infrastructures. Thousands of kilometres of railways and highways were completed in record times to connect the main urban areas, while dams and power plants were built all over Italy, often without regard for geological and environmental conditions. Strong urban growth led to uncontrolled urban sprawl. The natural environment was constantly under threat by wild industrial expansion, leading to ecological disasters like theVajont Dam inundation and theSeveso chemical accident.
Attack of the far-right terrorist groupNAR at theBologna railway station on 2 August 1980, which caused the death of 85 people
During the 1970s, Italy saw an unexpected escalation of political violence. From 1969 to 1980, repeated neofascist outrages were launched such as thePiazza Fontana bombing in 1969. Red Brigades and many other groups decided on armed attacks as a revolutionary strategy. They carried out urban riots, as in Rome and Bologna in 1977. Known as theYears of Lead, this period was characterised by widespread social conflicts and terrorist acts carried out by extra-parliamentary movements. The assassination of the leader of theChristian Democracy (DC),Aldo Moro, led to the end of a "historic compromise" between the DC and theCommunist Party (PCI). In the 1980s, for the first time, two governments were managed by a Republican (Giovanni Spadolini 1981–82) and a Socialist (Bettino Craxi 1983–87) rather than by a Christian Democrat.[247][248]
Italy faced several terror attacks between 1992 and 1993, perpetrated by theSicilian Mafia as a consequence of several life sentences pronounced during the "Maxi Trial", and of the new anti-mafia measures launched by the government. In 1992, two major dynamite attacks killed two judges,[249] and a year later tourist spots, leaving 10 dead and 93 injured and causing severe damage to cultural heritage such as theUffizi Gallery. The Catholic Church openly condemned the Mafia, and two churches were bombed and an anti-Mafia priest shot dead in Rome.[250][251]
Bettino Craxi, viewed by many as the symbol ofTangentopoli, Leader of theSocialist Party and Prime Minister from 1983 to 1987, is greeted by a salvo of coins as a sign of loathing by protesters.
From 1992 to 1997, Italy faced significant challenges as voters disenchanted with political paralysis, massive government debt, extensive corruption, and organised crime's considerable influence collectively called the political systemTangentopoli. As Tangentopoli was under a set of judicial investigations by the name ofMani pulite (Italian for "clean hands"), voters demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms. Between 1992 and 1994 theDC underwent a severe crisis and was dissolved, splitting up into several pieces. ThePSI (along with other minor governing parties) completely dissolved.[252][253]
The2006 general election returned Prodi to government, leading a coalition of 11 parties (The Union). Prodi followed a cautious policy of economic liberalisation and reduction of public debt. Berlusconi won the2008 general election. Italy was among the countries hit hardest by theGreat Recession of 2008–09 and the subsequentEuropean debt crisis. The national economy shrunk by 6.76% over seven quarters of recession.[254] On 12 November 2011, Berlusconi resigned, and the economistMario Monti was sworn in as prime minister at the head of atechnocratic government. To avoid the debt crisis and kick-start economic growth, Monti'snational unity government launched a massive programme ofausterity measures; that reduced the deficit but precipitated adouble-dip recession in 2012 and 2013.[255][256]
On 24 and 25 February 2013, ageneral election was held; a centre-left coalition ledPier Luigi Bersani, Leader of theDemocratic Party, won a slight majority in the Chamber of Deputies but did not control the Senate. On 24 April, President Napolitano gave to the Vice-Secretary of the Democratic Party,Enrico Letta, the task of forming a government. Letta formed a short-livedgrand coalition government which lasted until 22 February 2014.Matteo Renzi formed a newgovernment with the support of some centrist parties. The government implemented numerous reforms, including changes to theelectoral system, a relaxation of labour and employment laws with the intention of boosting economic growth, a thorough reformation of thepublic administration and the introduction ofsame-sex civil unions.[257] However, Renzi resigned after losing aconstitutional referendum in December 2016, and was succeeded byPaolo Gentiloni. The centre-left Cabinets were plagued by the aftermath of theEuropean debt crisis and theEuropean migrant crisis, which fuelled support for populist and right-wing parties.[258]
Exhausted nurse takes a break in an Italian hospital during theCOVID-19 emergency.
^Though the modern state of Italy had yet to be established, the Latin equivalent of theterm Italian had been in use for natives ofthe region since antiquity. SeePliny the Elder,Letters 9.23.
^TheVatican City by theLateran Treaty of 1929 became an independent country, an enclave surrounded by Italy.
^InAlexander's Generals Blaxland quotes 59,151 Allied deaths between 3 September 1943 and 2 May 1945 as recorded at AFHQ and gives the breakdown between 20 nationalities: United States 20,442; United Kingdom, 18,737; France, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Senegal and Belgium 5,241; Canada, 4,798; India, Pakistan, Nepal 4,078; Poland 2,028; New Zealand 1,688; Italy (excluding irregulars) 917; South Africa 800; Brazil 275; Greece 115;Jewish volunteers from theBritish Mandate in Palestine 32. In addition, 35 soldiers were killed by enemy action while serving with pioneer units from Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Seychelles, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Lebanon, Cyprus and the West Indies[214]
^Sterio, Milena (2013).The Right to Self-Determination Under International Law: "Selfistans", Secession, and the Rule of the Great Powers. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. p. xii (preface).ISBN978-0-4156-6818-7. Retrieved13 June 2016.The great powers are super-sovereign states: an exclusive club of the most powerful states economically, militarily, politically and strategically. These states include veto-wielding members of the United Nations Security Council (United States, United Kingdom, France, China, and Russia), as well as economic powerhouses such as Germany, Italy and Japan.
^Piccolo, Salvatore (2013).Ancient stones: the Dolmen culture in prehistoric South-eastern Sicily. Thornham, Norfolk: Brazen Head Publishing. p. 32.ISBN978-0-9565106-2-4.
^One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Mitchell, John Malcolm (1911). "Terramara". InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 658–659.
^abGimbutas, M.Bronze Age Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe. pp. 339–345.
^John M. ColesThe Bronze Age in Europe: An Introduction to the Prehistory of Europe C. 2000–700 BC, pp. 422
^There is no complete census, but the figure of 7,000 in E. Contu, "L'architettura nuraghica", in Atzeniet al. (1985), (seeAtzeni, E.; et al. (1985).Ichnussa. p. 5.[full citation needed]), is often repeated, and the Provincia di Cagliari website (see"Provincia di Cagliari". Archived fromthe original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved22 November 2021.) estimates more than 7,000.
^Monoja, M.; Cossu, C.; Migaleddu, M. (2012).Parole di segni, L'alba della scrittura in Sardegna. Sardegna Archeologica, Guide e Itinerari. Sassari: Carlo Delfino Editore.
^Ugas, Giovanni (2005).L'Alba dei Nuraghi. Cagliari: Fabula editrice.ISBN978-8-8896-6100-0.
^Perra, M. (1993).La Sardegna nelle fonti classiche. Oristano: S'Alvure editrice.
^Ugas, Giovanni (2013). "I segni numerali e di scrittura in Sardegna tra l'Età del Bronzo e il i Ferro". In Mastino, Attilio; Spanu, Pier Giorgio; Zucca, Raimondo (eds.).Tharros Felix. Vol. 5. Roma: Carocci. pp. 295–377.
^"Liguri". Enciclopedie on line.Treccani.it (in Italian). Rome:Treccani -Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. 2011.Le documentazioni sulla lingua dei Liguri non ne permettono una classificazione linguistica certa (preindoeuropeo di tipo mediterraneo? Indoeuropeo di tipo celtico?).
^abCatherine Mason, Carl Waldman.Encyclopedia of European Peoples. Infobase Publishing. pp. 452–459.
^[2] Plutarch, Life of Caesar. Retrieved 1 October 2011
^[3] Plutarch,Parallel Lives,Life of Antony, LXXI, 3–5.
^Cooley, Alison (2016). "Coming to Terms with Dynastic Power, 30 BC-AD 69". In Cooley, Alison (ed.).A Companion to Roman Italy. Blackwell. pp. 103–104.ISBN978-1-4443-3926-0.
^"Pax Romana".Encyclopædia Britannica. 30 September 2024.
^Cooley, Alison (2016). "Italy during the High Empire, from the Flavians to Diocletian". In Cooley, Alison (ed.).A Companion to Roman Italy. Blackwell. pp. 130–131.ISBN978-1-4443-3926-0.
^Abalain, Hervé, (2007)Le français et les langues historiques de la France, Éditions Jean-Paul Gisserot, p.113
^Alexander Grab,Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe (2003) pp 62–65, 78–79, 88–96, 115–17, 154–59
^Maiorino, Tarquinio; Marchetti Tricamo, Giuseppe; Zagami, Andrea (2002).Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera (in Italian). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. p. 156.ISBN978-8-8045-0946-2.
^Stuart, J. Woolf (1981).Il risorgimento italiano (in Italian). Turin: Einaudi. p. 44.
^André, Giuseppe (1875).Nizza negli ultimi quattro anni (in Italian). Nice: Editore Gilletta. pp. 334–335.
^Moe, Nelson (2002).The View from Vesuvius: Italian Culture and the Southern Question.
^abSarti, Roland (2004).Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present. pp. 567–568.
^Massari, Giuseppe; Castagnola, Stefano (1863).Il brigantaggio nelle province napoletane (in Italian). Fratelli Ferrario. p. 17, 20.
^abPozzetta, George E.; Ramirez, Bruno; Harney, Robert F. (1992).The Italian Diaspora: Migration across the Globe. Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontario.
^abMcDonald, J. S. (October 1958). "Some Socio-Economic Emigration Differentials in Rural Italy, 1902-1913".Economic Development and Cultural Change.7 (1):55–72.doi:10.1086/449779.ISSN0013-0079.S2CID153889304.
^Sori, Ercole.L'emigrazione italiana dall' Unità alla Seconda Guerra Mondiale (in Italian). chapter 1.
^abGabaccia, Donna (200).Italy's Many Diasporas. New York: Routledge. pp. 58–80.
^Pozzetta, George E. (1980).Pane e Lavoro: The Italian American Working Class. Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontorio.
^Alexander, J. (2001).The hunchback's tailor: Giovanni Giolitti and liberal Italy from the challenge of mass politics to the rise of fascism, 1882-1922. Greenwood.
^"Vatican City turns 91".Vatican News. 11 February 2020. Retrieved2 September 2021.The world's smallest sovereign state was born on 11 February 1929, with the signing of the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy
^Kallis, Aristotle A. (2000).Fascist ideology: territory and expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922–1945. London, New York City: Routledge. p. 41.
^Ball, Terence; Bellamy, Richard.The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought. p. 133.
^Jozo Tomasevich. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford, California, US: Stanford University Press, 2001. P. 131.
^Aristotle A. Kallis.Fascist Ideology: Expansionism in Italy and Germany 1922–1945. London, England; UK; New York, New York, US: Routledge, 2000. P. 118.
^Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986, 1999. P. 38.
^Wakounig, Marija; Ruzicic-Kessler, Karlo, eds. (2011).From the Industrial Revolution to World War II in East Central Europe.LIT Verlag. p. 193.ISBN978-3-6439-0129-3.
^James J. Sadkovich, "Understanding Defeat: Reappraising Italy's Role in World War II,"Journal of Contemporary History (1989) 24#1 pp. 27–61online.
^G. Bianchi,La Resistenza, in: AA.VV.,Storia d'Italia, vol. 8, pp. 368-369.
^Pavone, Claudio (1991).Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza (in Italian). Torino: Bollati Boringhieri. p. 238.ISBN8-8339-0629-9.
^Effie Pedaliu (2004)JSTOR4141408? Britain and the 'Hand-over' of Italian War Criminals to Yugoslavia, 1945–48. Journal of Contemporary History. Vol. 39, No. 4, Special Issue: Collective Memory, pp. 503–529
^Baldissara, Luca & Pezzino, Paolo (2004).Crimini e memorie di guerra: violenze contro le popolazioni e politiche del ricordo, L'Ancora del Mediterraneo.ISBN978-8-8832-5135-1
^There are three fundamental decrees that seal the legislative work, already active since 1944:All powers to CLNAI;Decree for the administration of justice;Of socialization.
^Christopher Duggan,Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 (2008) ch 27
^Ellwood, David W. (2003). "The Propaganda of the Marshall Plan in Italy in a Cold War Context".Intelligence and National Security.18 (2):225–236.doi:10.1080/02684520412331306820.S2CID153463824.
^Ginsborg, Paul (2003).A history of contemporary Italy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 219.ISBN1-4039-6153-0.
^Alessandra Diazzi and Alvise Sforza Tarabochia,The Years of Alienation in Italy: Factory and Asylum Between the Economic Miracle and the Years of Lead (2019), pp 1-40.
^Richard Drake, "Italy in the 1960s: A Legacy of Terrorism and Liberation."South Central Review 16 (1999): 62-76.online
^Sarah Waters, "'Tangentopoli' and the emergence of a new political order in Italy."West European Politics (1994): 17#1 pp:169–182.
^Donald Sassoon, "Tangentopoli or the democratization of corruption: Considerations on the end of Italy's first republic."Journal of Modern Italian Studies (1995) 1#1 pp: 124–143.
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