Agrimoire (/ɡrɪmˈwɑːr/) (also known as abook of spells,magic book, or aspellbook)^{[citation needed]} is atextbook ofmagic, typically including instructions on how to create magical objects liketalismans andamulets, how to perform magicalspells, charms, anddivination, and how tosummon orinvoke supernatural entities such asangels,spirits,deities, anddemons.^[1] In many cases, the books themselves are believed to be imbued with magical powers. The only contents found in a grimoire would be information on spells,rituals, the preparation of magical tools, and lists of ingredients and theirmagical correspondences.^{[2][unreliable source?]} In this manner, while allbooks on magic could be thought of as grimoires, not allmagical books should be thought of as grimoires.^[3]

While the termgrimoire is originally European—and many Europeans throughout history, particularlyceremonial magicians andcunning folk, have used grimoires—the historianOwen Davies has noted that similar books can be found all around the world, ranging fromJamaica toSumatra.^[4] He also noted that in this sense, the world's first grimoires were created in Europe and theancient Near East.^[5]

The etymology ofgrimoire is unclear. It is most commonly believed that the termgrimoire originated from theOld French wordgrammaire 'grammar', which had initially been used to refer to all books written inLatin. By the 18th century, the term had gained its now common usage in France and had begun to be used to refer purely to books of magic. Owen Davies presumed this was because "many of them continued to circulate in Latin manuscripts".^[6]

However, the termgrimoire later developed into afigure of speech among the French indicating something that was hard to understand. In the 19th century, with the increasing interest inoccultism among the British following the publication ofFrancis Barrett'sThe Magus (1801), the term entered English in reference to books of magic.^[1]

The earliest known written magical incantations come from ancientMesopotamia (modernIraq), where they have been found inscribed oncuneiform clay tablets thatarchaeologists excavated from the city ofUruk and dated to between the 5th and 4th centuries BC.^[7] Theancient Egyptians also employed magical incantations, which have been found inscribed on amulets and other items. The Egyptian magical system, known asheka, was greatly altered and expanded after theMacedonians, led byAlexander the Great, invaded Egypt in 332 BC.^[8]

Under the next three centuries ofHellenistic Egypt, theCoptic writing system evolved, and theLibrary of Alexandria was opened. This likely had an influence upon books of magic, with the trend on known incantations switching from simple health and protection charms to more specific things, such as financial success and sexual fulfillment.^[8] Around this time the legendary figure ofHermes Trismegistus developed as a conflation of the Egyptian godThoth and the GreekHermes; this figure was associated with writing and magic and, therefore, of books on magic.^[9]

Theancient Greeks andRomans believed that books on magic were invented by thePersians. The 1st-century AD writerPliny the Elder stated that magic had been first discovered by the ancient philosopherZoroaster around the year 647 BC but that it was only written down in the 5th century BC by the magicianOsthanes. His claims are not, however, supported by modern historians.^[10]

The ancientJewish people were often viewed as being knowledgeable in magic, which, according to legend, they had learned fromMoses, who had learned it in Egypt. Among many ancient writers, Moses was seen as an Egyptian rather than a Jew. Two manuscripts likely dating to the 4th century, both of which purport to be the legendary eighth Book of Moses (the first five being the initial books in the BiblicalOld Testament), present him as apolytheist who explained how to conjure gods and subdue demons.^[9]

Meanwhile, there is definite evidence of grimoires being used by certain—particularlyGnostic—sects ofearly Christianity. In theBook of Enoch found within theDead Sea Scrolls, for instance, there is information onastrology andthe angels. In possible connection with theBook of Enoch, the idea ofEnoch and his great-grandsonNoah having some involvement with books of magic given to them by angels continued through to the medieval period.^[10]

Israelite KingSolomon was a Biblical figure associated with magic and sorcery in the ancient world. The 1st-century Romano-Jewish historianJosephus mentioned a book circulating under the name of Solomon that contained incantations for summoning demons and described how a Jew called Eleazar used it tocure cases of possession. The book may have been theTestament of Solomon but was more probably a different work.^[11] ThepseudepigraphicTestament of Solomon is one of the oldest magical texts. It is a Greek manuscript attributed to Solomon and was likely written in eitherBabylonia or Egypt sometime in the first five centuries AD; over 1,000 years after Solomon's death.

The work tells of the building ofThe Temple and relates that construction was hampered by demons until thearchangelMichael gave the King a magical ring. The ring, engraved with theSeal of Solomon, had the power to bind demons from doing harm. Solomon used it to lock demons in jars and commanded others to do his bidding, although eventually, according to theTestament, he was tempted into worshiping "false gods", such asMoloch,Baal, andRapha. Subsequently, after losing favour with God, King Solomon wrote the work as a warning and a guide to the reader.^[12]

When Christianity became the dominant faith of theRoman Empire, the early Church frowned upon the propagation of books on magic, connecting it withpaganism, andburned books of magic. TheNew Testament records that after the unsuccessfulexorcism by the seven sons ofSceva became known, many converts decided toburn their own magic and pagan books in the city ofEphesus; this advice was adopted on a large scale after the Christian ascent to power.^[13]

In themedieval period, the production of grimoires continued inChristendom, as well as amongst Jews and the followers of the newly foundedIslamic faith. As the historian Owen Davies noted, "while the [Christian] Church was ultimately successful in defeating pagan worship it never managed to demarcate clearly and maintain a line of practice between religious devotion and magic."^[14] The use of such books on magic continued. In Christianised Europe, the Church divided books of magic into two kinds: those that dealt with "natural magic" and those that dealt in "demonic magic".^[15]

The former was acceptable because it was viewed as merely taking note of the powers in nature that were created by God; for instance, theAnglo-Saxon leechbooks, which contained simple spells for medicinal purposes, were tolerated. Demonic magic was not acceptable, because it was believed that such magic did not come from God, but from theDevil and his demons. These grimoires dealt in such topics asnecromancy,divination anddemonology.^[15] Despite this, "there is ample evidence that the mediaeval clergy were the main practitioners of magic and therefore the owners, transcribers, and circulators of grimoires,"^[16] while several grimoires were attributed toPopes.^[17]

One such Arabic grimoire devoted to astral magic, the 10th-centuryGhâyat al-Hakîm, was later translated into Latin and circulated in Europe during the 13th century under the name of thePicatrix.^[18] However, not all such grimoires of this era were based upon Arabic sources. The 13th-centurySworn Book of Honorius, for instance, was (like the ancientTestament of Solomon before it) largely based on the supposed teachings of the Biblical king Solomon and included ideas such as prayers and aritual circle, with themystical purpose of having visions of God,Hell, andPurgatory and gaining much wisdom and knowledge as a result. Another was the HebrewSefer Raziel Ha-Malakh, translated in Europe as theLiber Razielis Archangeli.^[19]

A later book also claiming to have been written by Solomon was originally written in Greek during the 15th century, where it was known as theMagical Treatise of Solomon or theLittle Key of the Whole Art of Hygromancy, Found by Several Craftsmen and by the Holy Prophet Solomon. In the 16th century, this work had been translated into Latin and Italian, being renamed theClavicula Salomonis, or theKey of Solomon.^[20]

In Christendom during the medieval age, grimoires were written that were attributed to other ancient figures, thereby supposedly giving them a sense of authenticity because of their antiquity. The German abbot and occultistTrithemius (1462–1516) supposedly had aBook of Simon the Magician, based upon the New Testament figure ofSimon Magus.^[21]

Similarly, it was commonly believed by medieval people that other ancient figures, such as the poetVirgil, astronomerPtolemy, and philosopherAristotle, had been involved in magic, and grimoires claiming to have been written by them were circulated.^[22] However, there were those who did not believe this; for instance, theFranciscanfriarRoger Bacon (c. 1214–94) stated that books falsely claiming to be by ancient authors "ought to be prohibited by law."^[23]

As theearly modern period commenced in the late 15th century, many changes began to shock Europe that would have an effect on the production of grimoires. Historian Owen Davies classed the most important of these as theProtestant Reformation, and subsequent CatholicCounter-Reformation;The Witch-hunts, and theadvent of printing. TheRenaissance saw the continuation of interest in magic that had been found in the medieval period, and in this period, there was an increased interest inHermeticism among occultists andceremonial magicians in Europe, largely fueled by the 1471 translation of the ancientCorpus hermeticum into Latin byMarsilio Ficino (1433–99).

Alongside this, there was a rise in interest in theJewish mysticism known as theKabbalah, which was spread across the continent byPico della Mirandola andJohannes Reuchlin.^[24] The most important magician of the Renaissance wasHeinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535), who widely studied occult topics and earlier grimoires and eventually published his own, theThree Books of Occult Philosophy, in 1533.^[25] A similar figure was the Swiss magician known asParacelsus (1493–1541), who publishedOf the Supreme Mysteries of Nature, in which he emphasised the distinction between good and bad magic.^[26] A third such individual wasJohann Georg Faust, upon whom several pieces of later literature were written, such asChristopher Marlowe'sDoctor Faustus, that portrayed him as consulting with demons.^[27]

The idea of demonology had remained strong in the Renaissance, and several demonological grimoires were published, includingThe Fourth Book of Occult Philosophy, which falsely claimed to having been authored by Cornelius Agrippa,^[28] and thePseudomonarchia Daemonum, which listed 69 demons. To counter this, the Roman Catholic Church authorised the production of many works of exorcism, the rituals of which were often very similar to those of demonic conjuration.^[29] Alongside these demonological works, grimoires on natural magic continued to be produced, includingMagia Naturalis, written byGiambattista Della Porta (1535–1615).^[30]

Iceland held magical traditions in regional work as well, most remarkably theGaldrabók, where numerous symbols of mystic origin are dedicated to the practitioner. These pieces give a perfect fusion ofGermanic pagan and Christian influence, seeking splendid help from theNorse gods and referring to the titles of demons.^[31]

The advent of printing in Europe meant that books could be mass-produced for the first time and could reach an ever-growing literate audience. Among the earliest books to be printed were magical texts. Thenóminas were one example, consisting of prayers to the saints used as talismans.^[32] It was particularly in Protestant countries, such as Switzerland and the German states, which were not under the domination of the Roman Catholic Church, where such grimoires were published.

Despite the advent of print, however, handwritten grimoires remained highly valued, as they were believed to contain inherent magical powers, and they continued to be produced.^[33] With increasing availability, people lower down the social scale and women began to have access to books on magic; this was often incorporated into the popular folk magic of the average people and, in particular, that of thecunning folk, who were professionally involved in folk magic.^[34] These works left Europe and were imported to the parts of Latin America controlled by theSpanish andPortuguese empires and the parts of North America controlled by theBritish andFrench empires.^[35]

Throughout this period, theInquisition, a Roman Catholic organisation, had organised the mass suppression of peoples and beliefs that they consideredheretical. In many cases, grimoires were found in the heretics' possessions and destroyed.^[36] In 1599, the church published theIndexes of Prohibited Books, in which many grimoires were listed as forbidden, including several mediaeval ones, such as theKey of Solomon, which were still popular.^[37]

In Christendom, there also began to develop a widespread fear ofwitchcraft, which wasbelieved to be Satanic in nature. The subsequent hysteria, known asThe Witch-hunts, caused the death of around 40,000 people, most of whom were women.^[38] Sometimes, those found with grimoires—particularly demonological ones—were prosecuted and dealt with as witches but, in most cases, those accused had no access to such books. Iceland—which had a relatively high literacy rate—proved an exception to this, with a third of the 134 witch trials held involving people who had owned grimoires.^[39] By the end of the Early Modern period, and the beginning ofthe Enlightenment, many European governments brought in laws prohibiting many superstitious beliefs in an attempt to bring an end to the Witch Hunts; this would invariably affect the release of grimoires.

Meanwhile, Hermeticism and the Kabbalah would influence the creation of a mystical philosophy known asRosicrucianism, which first appeared in the early 17th century, when two pamphlets detailing the existence of the mysterious Rosicrucian group were published in Germany. These claimed that Rosicrucianism had originated with a medieval figure known asChristian Rosenkreuz, who had founded the Brotherhood of the Rosy Cross; however, there was no evidence for the existence of Rosenkreuz or the Brotherhood.^[40]

The 18th century saw the rise ofthe Enlightenment, a movement devoted to science andrationalism, predominantly amongst the ruling classes. However, amongst much of Europe, belief in magic and witchcraft persisted,^[41] as did the witch trials in certain^[which?] areas. Governments tried to crack down on magicians andfortune tellers, particularly in France, where the police viewed them as social pests who took money from the gullible, often in a search for treasure. In doing so, they confiscated many grimoires.^[42]

Beginning in the 17th century, a new, ephemeral form of printed literature developed in France; theBibliothèque bleue. Many grimoires published through this circulated among a growing percentage^{[citation needed]} of the populace; in particular, theGrand Albert, thePetit Albert (1782), theGrimoire du Pape Honorius, and theEnchiridion Leonis Papae. ThePetit Albert contained a wide variety of magic; for instance, dealing in simple charms for ailments, along with more complex things, such as the instructions for making aHand of Glory.^[43]

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, following theFrench Revolution of 1789, a hugely influential grimoire was published under the title of theGrand Grimoire, which was considered particularly powerful, because it involved conjuring and making a pact with the devil's chief minister,Lucifugé Rofocale, to gain wealth from him. A new version of this grimoire was later published under the title of theDragon rouge and was available for sale in many Parisian bookstores.^[44] Similar books published in France at this time included theBlack Pullet and theGrimoirium Verum. TheBlack Pullet, probably authored in late-18th-century Rome or France, differs from the typical grimoires in that it does not claim to be a manuscript from antiquity, but told by a man who was a member ofNapoleon's armed expeditionary forces in Egypt.^[45]

The widespread availability of printed grimoires in France—despite the opposition of both the rationalists and the church—soon^[when?] spread to neighbouring countries, such as Spain and Germany. In Switzerland,Geneva was commonly associated with the occult at the time, particularly by Catholics, because it had been a stronghold of Protestantism. Many of those interested in the esoteric traveled from Roman Catholic nations to Switzerland to purchase grimoires or to study with occultists.^[46] Soon, grimoires appeared that involvedCatholic saints; one example that appeared during the 19th century, and became relatively popular—particularly in Spain—was theLibro de San Cipriano, orThe Book of St. Ciprian, which falsely claimed to date from c. 1000. As with most grimoires of this period, it dealt with (among other things) how to discover treasure.^[47]

In Germany, with the increased interest infolklore during the 19th century, many historians took an interest in magic and in grimoires. Several published extracts of such grimoires in their own books on the history of magic, thereby helping to further propagate them. Perhaps the most notable of these was the Protestantpastor Georg Conrad Horst (1767 –1832)^[48] who, from 1821 to 1826, published a six-volume collection of magical texts in which he studied grimoires as a peculiarity of the medieval mindset.^[49]

Another scholar of the time interested in grimoires, the antiquarian bookseller Johann Scheible first published theSixth and Seventh Books of Moses; two influential magical texts that claimed to have been written by the ancient Jewish figure Moses.^[50]The Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses were among the works which later spread to the countries ofScandinavia, where—inDanish andSwedish—grimoires were known asblack books and were commonly found among members of the army.^[51]

In Britain, new grimoires continued to be produced throughout the 18th century, such asEbenezer Sibly'sA New and Complete Illustration of the Celestial Science of Astrology. In the last decades of that century, London experienced a revival of interest in the occult which was further propagated byFrancis Barrett's publication ofThe Magus in 1801.The Magus contained many things taken from older grimoires—particularly those of Cornelius Agrippa—and, while not achieving initial popularity upon release, it gradually became an influential text.^[52]

One of Barrett's pupils, John Parkin, created his own handwritten grimoireThe Grand Oracle of Heaven, or, The Art of Divine Magic, although it was never published, largely because Britainwas at war with France, and grimoires were commonly associated with the French. The only writer to publish British grimoires widely in the early 19th century wasRobert Cross Smith, who releasedThe Philosophical Merlin (1822) andThe Astrologer of the Nineteenth Century (1825), but neither sold well.^[53]

In the late 19th century, several of these texts (includingThe Book of Abramelin and theKey of Solomon) were reclaimed by para-Masonic magical organisations, such as theHermetic Order of the Golden Dawn andOrdo Templi Orientis.

The Secret Grimoire of Turiel claims to have been written in the 16th century, but no copy older than 1927 has been produced.^[54]

A modern grimoire, theSimon Necronomicon, takes its name from a fictional book of magic in the stories ofH. P. Lovecraft which was inspired byBabylonian mythology and theArs Goetia—one of the five books that make upTheLesser Key of Solomon—concerning the summoning of demons.The Azoëtia ofAndrew D. Chumbley has been described by Gavin Semple as a modern grimoire.^[55]

Theneopagan religion ofWicca publicly appeared in the 1940s, andGerald Gardner introduced theBook of Shadows as a Wiccan grimoire.^[56]

The term grimoire commonly serves as an alternative name for a spell book or tome of magical knowledge infantasy fiction androle-playing games. The most famous fictional grimoire is theNecronomicon, a creation ofH. P. Lovecraft.^[56]

• Table of magical correspondences, a type of reference work used inceremonial magic
• Cyprianus, a name for Scandinavian grimoires
• Codex
• Key of Solomon
• Lesser Key of Solomon
• Manuscript

• Davies, Owen (2009).Grimoires: A History of Magic Books. Oxford University Press USA.ISBN 9780199204519.OCLC 244766270.

•   The dictionary definition ofgrimoire at Wiktionary
•   Media related toGrimoires at Wikimedia Commons
• Internet Sacred Text Archives: Grimoires
• Digitized Grimoires
• Grimoires Explained: Manuals of Magic
• Reidar Thoralf Christiansen; Pat Shaw Iversen (1964).Folktales of Norway. University of Chicago Press. p. 32ff.ISBN 978-0-226-10510-9.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
• Scandinavian folkloreArchived 21 March 2007 at theWayback Machine