Greek colonisation refers to the expansion ofArchaic Greeks, particularly during the8th–6th centuries BC, across theMediterranean Sea and theBlack Sea.

The Archaic expansion differed from theIron Age migrations of theGreek Dark Ages, in that it consisted of organised direction (seeoikistes) away from the originatingmetropolis rather than the simplistic movement of tribes, which characterised the aforementioned earlier migrations. Many colonies, orapoikiai (Greek:ἀποικία,transl. "home away from home"), that were founded during this period eventually evolved into strongGreek city-states, functioning independently of theirmetropolis.

The reasons for the Greeks to establishcolonies were strong economic growth with the consequentoverpopulation of the motherland,^[1] and that the land of these Greek city states could not support a large city. The areas that the Greeks would try to colonise were hospitable and fertile.^[2] Greek colonization was typically motivated by a combination of factors, depending on the context.

Demographic pressure and environmental factors prompted the colonization of other lands.Herodotus's account for the founding of the colony ofCyrene in Libya was due to social unrest on the island ofThera (metropolis), caused by severe overpopulation and a prolong drought.^[3] Herodotus provided two different accounts for the finding ofCyrene. The version of the Cyreneans emphasized the divine appointment of Battus (the founder) by theoracle of Apollo to establish a colony in Libya.^[3]Herodotus inclusion of religious prophecies and mythical elements reflected a bias towards the role of religion as one of the factors that contributes to colonisation.^[4] In contrast, the version provided by the Therans focused on their King Grinnus and his instruction to send Battus to set up a colony in Libya.^[3] Even though this account was more realistic, it might also serve as a propaganda for the Therans to maintain their historical and cultural ties with the Cyreneans for economic and political benefits.^[4]

Furthermore, fertile lands in thePeloponnese are limited.Thucydides mentioned that early Greek city states often fought for quality soil used in agriculture by conducting violent raids.^[5] This placed more strain on the general populace of city states, which made it hard for communities to settle and encourage migration.^[6]

Another reason for Greek colonization was the expansion of one’s influence. As ancient Greeks in thePeloponnese developed a sense of identity, they had the desire to spread their culture through colonisation. During the early days of Greek colonization (8-7th century BCE), Apoikia (ἀποικία) was one of the most common types of Greek colonies.^[7] Even though these colonies were usually independent of the metropolis and had their own governance, their system was usually modelled after their mother city.^[8] Furthermore, they usually maintained strong cultural ties with the metropolis through their mutual heritage which allowed Greek culture to spread to native populations.^[8]

Didorus’s account on the finding of the colony ofThurium was driven by the invitation of the Sybarites to establish a panhellenic colony from various Greek city states.^[9] Archeological evacuations have uncovered ruined Greek structures and artifacts which might give insight into the city’s Greek origin.^[10] Moreover, the Athenians were eager to expand their influence and seek allies during thePeloponnesian war.Thucydides account of the Athenian’s attempt to coloniseSicily during thePeloponnesian war was due to the support from Sicilian cities which highlights the importance of establishing alliances to expand their own sphere of influence.^[5]

In some cases, some colonies were found to escape from civil unrest or political instability. For instance, identity crisis in the metropolis caused political and social tensions, which resulted in expulsion of certain groups.Strabo mentioned the founding ofTaras by the Parthenians, who were the descendants ofSpartan women but were denied full rights citizenship. After a failed attempt to plot against the local citizens, they were urged to find the colony ofTaras to prevent further conflict.^[11] Strabo’s account of the founding ofTaras by the Parthenians aligned with other historical context, such as theMessenian war, which gave birth to the Parthenians. By sending one of the parties away, social conflicts could be alleviated in the mother city. Modern researchers also suggest factors such as fleeing from a crime or even exploration could motivate others to set up new colonies.^[12]

Modern scholar suggests the recognition of economic and strategic value leads to further colonization. Many colonies were established along themediterranean andblack sea as a trading hub and center of commerce. These colonies were calledEmporion (ἐμπόριον), which were usually placed among strategic location that allowed them to control and facilitate certain trade routes.^[13] Over time, they were transformed into important trading centre.^[13] For example,Emporion colonies were set up along southern Italy and Sicily due to it abundance of natural resources and fertile lands.^[14] This helped facilitate maritime trade and expand their own trade network.^[15] Moreover, they could regulate taxes as they develop into larger colonies,^[13] which could contribute to the long-term economic prosperity of the metropolis.^[15] Other colonies were established along the coastline to protect their trade routes and acted as military outposts.^[13] The main goal of theSicillian expedition undertook by the Athenians during thePeloponnesian war was to capture the strategic point of Sicily. According toThucydides, the Athenians were also attracted to the wealth and resources available there even though it was exaggerated.^[5] Furthermore, He claimed that the capture ofSicily would solidify their power in the Mediterranean world.^[5] Even thoughThucydides over-emphasized personal factors, such as the desire for wealth and glory of individuals, modern scholars recognize the strategic importance of such expedition that would help shape the decision made by those individuals.^[16] By capturingSicily, they would gain dominance over trade routes in the Mediterranean. This demonstrates that the Athenians were likely aware of the strategic and trade benefits that were brought by colonies.

During the 5th to 4th century BCE, a new type of colony called Cleruchies (κληρουχία) was established by theAthenian empire.^[7] Unlike other Greek colonies, cleruchies are politically dependent on Athens, where its governance was modelled after Athens and its citizen retained Athenian citizenship.^[7] Moreover, citizens living inside these colonies were granted lands in exchange for military service and had to pay taxes to Athens.^[17]

There are debates on the other motives of Cleruchies. Ancient sources suggest that Cleruchies were set up to alleviate poverty by giving land to the poor.^[18]Plutarch’s account implies cleruchies were established as a social welfare measure by distributing land to the poor.^[18][19] Moreover, there were ancient inscriptions in the cleruchy ofBrea that intends for land allocation only for the lower and middle classes, excluding higher property classes.^[18] In contrary, some ancient Greek grave markers in the Cleruchy ofEuboea suggest that wealthy individuals resided in the colony.^[17] Archaeological evidence on the site of Vrachos onEuboea suggests that not it was not only populated by the poor. For example, the presence of 200 non-Athenian mercenaries and strong fortification, which suggest heavy economic and military investments in the area.^[17] Other modern scholars suggest that the motive was to safeguard grain fleets and Cleruchies were set up along the route to theblack sea, where grains are plentiful.^[7] While islands such aslesbos contributed significantly to Athens through rent from settlements.^[17] Hence, Cleruchies were important to Athens as not only do they provide a strategic location for security but they provided a source of wealth in the form of agriculture and rents, which was vital during thePeloponnesian war.^[7][17]

The founding of the colonies was consistently an organised enterprise by themetropolis (mother city), although in many cases it collaborated with other cities. The place to be colonised was selected in advance with the goal of offering business advantages, but also security from raiders. In order to create a feeling of security and confidence in the new colony, the choice of place was decided according to its usefulness.^[20] The mission always included a leader nominated by the colonists. In the new cities, the colonists parceled out the land, including farms. The system of governance usually took a form similar to that of the metropolis.

Greek colonies were often established along coastlines, especially during the period of colonisation between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. Many Greek colonies were strategically positioned near coastlines to facilitate trade, communication, and access to maritime resources. These colonies played a crucial role in expanding Greek culture, trade networks, and influence throughout theMediterranean andBlack Sea regions. While some colonies were established inland for various reasons, coastal locations were generally more common due to the Greeks' strong connection to the sea.

The Greeks started colonising around the beginning of the 8th century BC when theEuboeans foundedPithecusae in Southern Italy andOlynthus inChalcidice, Greece. Subsequently, they founded the colonies ofCumae,Zancle,Rhegium andNaxos.^[20]

At the end of the 8th century, Euboea fell into decline with the outbreak of theLelantine War but colonial foundation continued by other Greeks such as the Ionians and Corinthians.^[2] The Ionians started their first colonies around the 7th century in Southern Italy,Thrace and on theBlack Sea.Thera foundedCyrene andAndros, andSamos founded multiple colonies in the Northern Aegean.^[21]

Numerous colonies were founded inNorthern Greece, chiefly in the region ofChalcidice but also in the region ofThrace.

Chalcidice was settled by Euboeans, chiefly from Chalcis, who lent their name to these colonies. The most important settlements of the Euboeans in Chalcidice wereOlynthos (which was settled in collaboration with theAthenians),Torone,Mende,Sermyle,Aphytis andCleonae in the peninsula ofAthos. Other important colonies in Chalcidice wereAcanthus, founded by colonists fromAndros^[22] andPotidaea, a colony ofCorinth.Thasians with the help of the AthenianCallistratus of Aphidnae founded the city ofDatus.During thePeloponnesian War, the Athenians with theHagnon, son of Nikias founded the city of Ennea Hodoi (Ἐννέα ὁδοὶ), meaning nine roads, at the current location of the "Hill 133" north ofAmphipolis inSerres.^[23]

Numerous other colonies were founded in the region of Thrace by the Ionians from the coast ofAsia Minor. Important colonies wereMaroneia, andAbdera. TheMilesians also foundedAbydos andCardia on theHellespont andRhaedestus inPropontis. TheSamians colonised the island ofSamothrace, becoming the source of its name. Finally, theParians colonisedThasos under the leadership of theoecist and father of the poetArchilochus, Telesicles.

In 340 BC, whileAlexander the Great was regent of Macedon, he founded the city ofAlexandropolis Maedica after defeating a local Thracian tribe.^[24]

Magna Graecia^[25] was the name given by theRomans to the coastal areas ofSouthern Italy in the present-dayItalian regions ofCalabria,Apulia,Basilicata,Campania andSicily which were extensively settled by Greeks.^[26]

Greeks began to settle in southern Italy in the 8th century BC.^[27]

The first great migratory wave directed towards the western Mediterranean was that of theEuboeans aimed at the Gulf of Naples who, afterPithecusae (on the isle ofIschia), the oldest Greek settlement in Italy, foundedCumae nearby, their first colony on the mainland, and then in the Strait of Messina,Zancle in Sicily, and nearby on the opposite coast,Rhegium.^[28]

The second wave was of theAchaeans who concentrated initially on the Ionian coast (Metapontion,Poseidonia,Sybaris,Kroton),^[29][30] shortly before 720 BC.^[31] At an unknown date between the 8th and 6th centuries BC the Athenians, of Ionian lineage, foundedScylletium (near today'sCatanzaro).^[32]

In Sicily the Euboeans later foundedNaxos, which became the base for the founding of the cities ofLeontini,Tauromenion andCatania. They were accompanied by small numbers ofDorians and Ionians; the Athenians had notably refused to take part in the colonisation.^[33] The strongest of the Sicilian colonies wasSyracuse, an 8th-century BC colony of the Corinthians.

Refugees fromSparta foundedTaranto which evolved into one of the most powerful cities in the area.Megara foundedMegara Hyblaea andSelinous;Phocaea foundedElea;Rhodes foundedGela together with theCretans andLipari together withCnidus; theLocrians foundedEpizephyrean Locris.^[20] According to legend,Lagaria which was betweenThurii and the riverSinni River was founded byPhocians.

Evidence of frequent contact between the Greek settlers and the indigenous peoples comes fromTimpone Della Motta which shows influence of Greek style inOneotroian pottery.^[34]

Many cities in the region became in turnmetropoleis for new colonies such as the Syracusans, who founded the city ofCamarina in the south of Sicily; or the Zancleans, who led the founding of the colony ofHimera. Likewise, Naxos, which founded many colonies whileSybaris founded the colony ofPoseidonia.Gela founded its own colony,Acragas.^[35]

With colonisation,Greek culture was exported to Italy with its dialects of theAncient Greek language, its religious rites, and its traditions of the independentpolis. An originalHellenic civilization soon developed, and later interacted with the nativeItalic civilisations. One of the most important cultural transplants was theChalcidean/Cumaean variety of theGreek alphabet which was adopted by theEtruscans; theOld Italic alphabet subsequently evolved into theLatin alphabet, which became the most widely used alphabet in the world.

The region of theIonian Sea and that ofIllyria were colonised strictly byCorinth. The Corinthians founded important overseas colonies on the sea lanes to Southern Italy and the west which succeeded in making them the foremost emporia of the western side of the Mediterranean. Important colonies of Corinth includedLeucada,Astacus,Anactoreum,Actium,Ambracia, andCorcyra - all in modern-day western Greece.

The Corinthians also founded important colonies inIllyria, which evolved into important cities,Apollonia andEpidamnus, in present-day Albania. The fact that about the 6th century BC the citizens of Epidamnus constructed a Doric-style treasury atOlympia confirms that the city was among the richest of theAncient Greek world. An ancient account describes Epidamnos as 'a great power and very populated' city.^[37]Nymphaeum was another Greek colony in Illyria.^[38] TheAbantes ofEuboea founded the city ofThronion at the Illyria.^[39]

Further west, colonists from the Greek city-stateParos in 385 BC founded the colony Pharos on the island of Hvar in the Adriatic, on the site of the present-dayStari Grad in Croatia.^[21] In the early 4th century BC the Greek tyrant of SyracuseDionysius I founded the colony Issa on the modern-day island ofVis, and traders from Issa then went on to foundemporia in Tragurion (Trogir) and Epetion (Stobreč) on the Illyrian mainland in 3rd century BC.

In 1877 a Greek inscription was discovered inLumbarda on the eastern tip of the island ofKorčula in modern-dayCroatia which talks about the founding of another Greek settlement there in the 3rd or 4th century BC, by colonists from Issa. The artifact is known asLumbarda Psephisma.^[40] Evidence of coinage on the Illyrian coast used for trade between the Illyrians and the Greeks can be dated to around the 4th century BC and minted in Adriatic colonies such asIssa and Pharos.^[41]

Although the Greeks had at one point called the Black Sea shore "inhospitable", according to ancient sources they eventually created 70 to 90 colonies.^[42] The colonization of the Black Sea was led by the Megarans and some of the Ionian cities such asMiletus,Phocaea andTeos. The majority of colonies in the region of the Black Sea andPropontis were founded in the 7th century BC.

In the area of Propontis, the Megarans founded the cities ofAstacus in Bithynia,Chalcedonia andByzantium which occupied a privileged position. Miletus foundedCyzicus and the PhocaeansLampsacus.^[43]

On the western shore of the Black Sea the Megarans founded the cities ofSelymbria and a little later,Nesebar. A little farther north in today'sRomania the Milesians founded the cities ofHistria,Argame andApollonia.

In the south of the Black Sea the most important colony wasSinope which according to prevailing opinion was founded by Miletus some time around the middle of the 7th century BC.^[43] Sinope was founded with a series of other colonies in the Pontic region:Trebizond,Cerasus,Cytorus,Cotyora, Cromne,Pteria,Tium, etc.

Further north from theDanube delta the Greeks colonised the islet, probably then a peninsula, of Barythmenis (modernBerezan) which evolved into the colony ofBorysthenes in the next century.

The most important colony founded on the southern shore of the Black Sea was a Megaran and Boeotian foundation:Heraclea Pontica in 560-550 BC.^[44]

On the north shore of the Black Sea Miletus was the first to start withPontic Olbia andPanticapaeum (modernKerch). In about 560 BC the Milesians foundedOdessa in the region of modernUkraine.^[43] On theCrimean peninsula (the Greeks then called it Tauric Chersonese or "Peninsula of the Bulls") they founded likewise the cities ofSympheropolis,Nymphaeum andHermonassa. On theSea of Azov (Lake Maiotis to the ancients) they foundedTanais (in Rostov), Tyritace, Myrmeceum, Cecrine andPhanagoria, the last being a colony of theTeians.

On the eastern shore, which was known in ancient times asColchis, today inGeorgia and the autonomous region ofAbkhazia, the Greeks founded the cities ofPhasis and Dioscouris. The latter was calledSebastopolis by the Romans and Byzantines and is known today asSokhumi.

Heraclea Pontica foundedCallatis on the southern coast of Romania at the end of the 6th c. BC.^[45]

Only a few colonies were founded during the Greek Classical period which includedMesembria (modern Nessebar) by the Megareans in 493 BC.^[46][47] Heraclea Pontica foundedChersonesus Taurica in Crimea at the end of the 5th or early 4th c. BC.

The ancient Greek settlement calledManitra of the 4th-3rd centuries BC near the town of Baherove in Crimea^[48] was discovered in 2018.

The Greek colonies expanded as far as theIberian Peninsula andNorth Africa.

In North Africa, on the peninsula ofKyrenaika, colonists from Thera foundedKyrene, which evolved into a very powerful city in the region.^[20] Other colonies in Kyrenaika later includedBarca,Euesperides (modernBenghazi),Taucheira, andApollonia.

By the middle of the 7th century, the lone Greek colony inEgypt had been founded,Naukratis.^[49] ThepharaohPsammitecus I gave a trade concession to Milesian merchants for one establishment on the banks of theNile, founding a trading post which evolved into a prosperous city by the time of thePersian expedition to Egypt in 525 B.C.

2023 archaeological findings inThonis-Heracleion at Egypt, suggested that Greeks, who were already allowed to trade in the city, "had started to take root" there as early as during theTwenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt and that likely Greek mercenaries were employed to defend the city.^[50]

Similar to the emporion established in the Nile Delta it is possible there was a Greek trading colony established by the Euboians along the Syrian coast on the mouth of theOrontes river at the siteAl-Mina in the early 8th century BC. The Greek colony ofPosideion on the promontory Ras al-Bassit was colonised just to the south of the Orontes estuary later in the 7th century BC.^[51]

Diodorus Siculus mentionsMeschela (Μεσχέλα), a city on the northern coast of Africa, founded by the Greeks after theTrojan War.^[52][53]

On the north side of the Mediterranean, the Phokaians foundedMassalia on the coast ofGaul. Massalia became the base for a series of further foundations farther away in the region of Spain. Phokaia also foundedAlalia inCorsica andOlbia inSardinia. The Phokaians arrived next on the coast of the Iberian peninsula. As related by Herodotus, a local king summoned the Phokaians to found a colony in the region and rendered meaningful aid in the fortification of the city. The Phokaians foundedEmpuries in this region and later the even more distantHemeroskopeion.

AL1.Nymphaeum AL2.Epidamnos AL3.Apollonia AL4.Aulon AL5.Chimara AL6.Bouthroton AL7.Oricum AL8.Thronion

AR1.Gerrha

*Pseudo-Scymnus writes that some say that the city of Bizone belongs to the barbarians, while others to be a Greek colony ofMesembria.

BUL1.Mesembria BUL2.Odessos BUL3.Apollonia /Antheia BUL4.Agathopolis BUL5.Kavarna BUL6.Pomorie BUL7.Naulochos BUL8.Krounoi BUL9.Pistiros BUL10.Anchialos BUL11.Bizone * BUL12.Develtos BUL13.Heraclea Sintica BUL14.Beroe

C1.Salona C2.Tragyrion C3.Aspálathos C4.Epidaurus C5.Issa C6.Dimos C7.Pharos C8.Kórkyra Mélaina C9.Epidaurum C10.Narona C11.Lumbarda C.12Epetion^[54]

CY1.Chytri CY2.Kyrenia CY3.Golgi^[55][56]

E1.Naucratis

F1.Agde F2.Massalia F3.Tauroentium/Tauroeis^[57] F4.Olbia F5.Nicaea F6.Monoikos F7.Antipolis F8.Alalia F9.Rhodanousia F10.Athenopolis F11. Pergantium^[58][59]

* Abkhazia is recognised only by Russia and asmall number of other countries.

G1.Bathys G2.Triglite G3.Pityus G4.Dioscurias G5.Phasis G6.Gyenos

GR1.Potidaea GR2.Stageira GR3.Acanthus GR4.Mende GR5.Ambracia GR6.Corcyra GR7.Maroneia GR8.Krinides GR9.Olynthus GR10.Abdera GR11.Therma GR12.Arethusa GR13.Leucas GR14.Eion GR15.Sane GR16.Amphipolis GR17.Argilus GR18.Sane GR19.Akanthos GR20.Astacus GR21.Galepsus GR22.Oesyme GR23.Phagres GR24.Datus GR25.Stryme GR26.Pistyrus GR27.Rhaecelus GR28.Dicaea GR29.Methoni GR30.Heraclea in Trachis GR31.Heraclea in Acarnania GR32.Anactorium GR33.Sale GR34.Drys GR35.Toroni GR36.Amorgos GR37.Actium GR38.Scabala GR39.Philippi GR40.Colonides GR41.Oliarus GR42.Potidaea GR43.Thera GR44.Myrcinus GR45.Tarphe GR46.Sollium^[60] GR47.Proschium^[61]

I1.Olbia I2.Adria I3.Ancona I4.Parthenope I5.Cumae I6.Procida I7.Dicaearchia I8.Neapolis I9.Poseidonia I10.Metapontum I11.Sybaris I12.Thurii I13.Taras I14.Siris I15.Crotona I16.Gallipoli I17.Hyele/Elea^[62] I18.Messina I19.Kale Akte I20.Syracuse I21.Didyme I22.Hycesia I23.Phoenicusa I24.Therassía I25.Lipara/Meligounis I26.Epizepherean Locris I27.Rhegium I28.Lentini I29.Selinountas I30.Megara Hyblaea I31.Naxos I32.Tauromenium^[63] I33.Acragas I34.Himera I35.Gela I36.Catania I37.Leontini^[64] I38.Ereikousa I39.Euonymos I40.Kamarina I41.Medma I42.Hipponion I43.Heraclea Minoa I44.Caulonia I45.Trotilon I46.Pyxous I47.Mylae I48.Laüs I49.Terina I50.Rhegion I51.Tindari I52.Macalla I53.Temesa I54.Metauros I55.Krimisa I56.Chone I57.Saturo I58.Heraclea Lucania,Siris I59.Scylletium^[65] I60.Agathyrnum I61.Adranon I62.Akrillai I63.Casmenae I64.Akrai I65.Engyon I66.Thapsos I67.Pithekoussai I68.Castelmezzano I69.Licata I70.Ortygia I71.Lagaria I72.Hydrus^[66][67] I73.Mactorium^[68][69] I74.Helorus^[70]

L1.Barce L2.Cyrene L3.Balagrae L4.Taucheira L5.Ptolemais L6.Euesperides L7.Antipyrgus L8.Apollonia L9.Cinyps L10.Menelai Portus

M1.Bouthoe

* Some historians believe that it was near the modernResen (North Macedonia) while others believe that it was near the modernVranje (Serbia).

MA1.Damastion * MA2.Heraclea Lyncestis

• Anthedon (Palestine), probably a colony ofAnthedon (Boeotia) fromc. 520 BCE[71]^[72]

RO1.Tomis RO2.Histria/Istros RO3.Aegyssus RO4.Stratonis RO5.Axiopolis RO6.Kallatis

RU1.Tanais RU2.Kepoi RU3.Phanagoria RU4.Bata RU5.Gorgippia RU6.Hermonassa RU7.Korokondame RU8.Taganrog RU9.Tyramba RU10.Patraeus RU11.Toricos

* Some historians believe that it was near the modernResen (North Macedonia) while others believe that it was near the modernVranje (Serbia).

SE1.Damastion *

S1.Portus Illicitanus S2.Akra Leuke S3.Alonis S4.Hemeroscopeum S5.Zakynthos S6.Salauris S7.Rhode S8.Emporion S9.Kalathousa S10.Mainake S11.Menestheus's Limin S12.Kypsela S13.Helike

SY1.Posidium

TR1.Selymbria TR2.Heraclea Pontica TR3.Cius TR4.Ephesus TR5.Dios Hieron TR6.Iasos TR7.Myndus TR8.Selge TR9.Priene TR10.Halicarnassus TR11.Miletus TR12.Tralles TR13.Phaselis TR14.Aspendos TR15.Side TR16.Sillyon TR17.Zephyrion TR18.Kelenderis TR19.Mallus TR20.Amos TR21.Byzantium TR22.Amaseia TR23.Amastris TR24.Ainos TR25.Berge TR26.Perinthos TR27.Cardia TR28.Chalcedon TR29.Nicomedia TR30.Abydos TR31.Sestos TR32.Lampsacus TR33.Panormos TR34.Cyzicus TR35.Ilion TR36.Sigeion TR37.Sinope TR38.Tirebolu TR39.Amisos TR40.Tripolis TR41.Cotyora TR42.Polemonion TR43.Pharnakia TR44.Kerasous TR45.Trapezous TR46.Themiscyra TR47.Astacus in Bithynia TR48.Assos TR49.Pitane TR50.Phocaea TR51.Smyrna TR52.Pergamon TR53.Teos TR55.Colophon TR56.Patara TR57.Canae TR58.Bargylia TR59.Madytus TR60.Elaeus TR61.Tieion TR62.Apamea Myrlea^[73] TR63.Klazomenai TR64.Notion TR65.Parion TR66.Heraion Teichos TR67.Bisanthe TR68.Erythrae TR69.Priapus TR70.Alopeconnesus TR71.Limnae TR73.Crithote TR74.Pactya TR75.Perinthus TR76.Tium TR77.Teichiussa^[74] TR78.Triopium TR79.Placia TR80.Scylace TR81.Arisba TR82.Apollonia TR83.Apollonia ad Rhyndacum TR84.Myrina TR85.Pythopolis TR86.Cytorus TR87.Armene TR88.Kolonai TR89.Paesus^[75] TR90.Scepsis TR91.Myus TR92.Mallus TR93.Mopsus TR94.Caryanda TR95.Athenae TR96.Syrna TR97.Cyme TR98.Marathesium TR99.Chrysopolis TR100.Neonteichos TR101.Artace TR102.Semystra TR103.Cobrys TR104.Cypasis TR105.Kydonies TR106.Coryphas TR107.Heraclea (Aeolis) TR108.Gargara TR109.Lamponeia^[76] TR110.Elaea TR111.Mariandyn TR112.Claros TR113.Knidos TR114.Prusias ad Hypium TR115.Dardanus TR116.Pygela TR117.Temnos TR118.Gryneium TR119.Aigai TR120.Rhoiteion TR121.Cadrema TR122.Daminon Teichos TR123.Hydrela^[77][78] TR124.Athymbra TR125.Carussa^[79] TR126.Termera^[80] TR127.Hamaxitus^[81] TR128.Mastya^[82] TR129.Nagidos^[83][84][85]

* According toHerodotus,Geloni were originally Greeks who settle away from the coastal emporia among the Budini and their language evolved into half Greek and half Scythian.^[86][87]Pavel Jozef Šafárik wrote that they might be Greeks among the Slavs and Fins (Μιξέλληνες - half Greeks half barbarians).^[88]

U1.Borysthenes^[89] U2.Tyras U3.Olbia U4.Nikonion^[90][91] U5.Odessa U6.Panticapaeum U7.Nymphaion U8.Tyritake U9.Theodosia U10.Chersonesus U11.Charax U11.Myrmekion U12.Kerkinitis U13.Kimmerikon U14.Kalos Limen U15.Yalita U16.Akra U17.Manitra^[48] U18.Gelonus* U19.Tarpanchi^[92]

• Zuchtriegel, Gabriel (2020).Colonization and Subalternity in Classical Greece: Experience of the Nonelite Population. Cambridge University Press; Reprint edition.ISBN 978-1108409223.
• Lucas, Jason; Murray, Carrie Ann; Owen, Sara (2019).Greek Colonization in Local Context: Case Studies Exploring the Dynamics among Locals and Colonizers. University of Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology Monographs. Oxbow Books.ISBN 978-1789251326.
• Tsetskhladze, Gocha R.; Atasoy, Sümer; Temür, Akın; Yiğitpaşa, Davut (2019).Settlements and Necropoleis of the Black Sea and Its Hinterland in Antiquity: Select Papers from the Third International Conference 'The Black Sea in Antiquity and Tekkeköy: An Ancient Settlement on the Southern Black Sea Coast', 27-29 October 2017, Tekkeköy, Samsun. Archaeopress.doi:10.2307/j.ctvwh8bw7.S2CID 241412939.
• Bosher, Kathryn (2016).Theater outside Athens: Drama in Greek Sicily and South Italy. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-1107527508.
• Irad, Malkin (2013).A Small Greek World: Networks in the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford University Press; Reprint edition.ISBN 978-0199315727.
• Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2011).The Black Sea, Greece, Anatolia and Europe in the First Millennium BC. Peeters Publishers.ISBN 978-9042923249.
• Rhodes, P. J. (2010).A History of the Classical Greek World: 478 - 323 BC. Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN 978-1405192866.
• Dietler, Michael; López-Ruiz, Carolina (2009).Colonial Encounters in Ancient Iberia: Phoenician, Greek, and Indigenous Relations. University Of Chicago Press.ISBN 978-0226148472.
• Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2008).Greek Colonisation: An Account Of Greek Colonies and Other Settlements Overseas: Volume 2. Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN 978-9004155763.
• Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2006).Greek Colonisation: An Account Of Greek Colonies and Other Settlements Overseas: Volume 1. Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN 978-9004122048.
• Kirigin, Branko (2006).Pharos. The Parian Settlement in Dalmatia: A study of a Greek colony in the Adriatic. British Archaeological Reports.ISBN 978-1841719917.
• Hall, Jonathan M. (2006).A History of the Archaic Greek World: ca. 1200-479 BCE. Wiley-Blackwel.ISBN 978-0631226680.
• Cerchiai, Luca; Janelli, Lorena; Longo, Fausto; Edward Smith, Mark (2004).The Greek Cities of Magna Graecia and Sicily. J. Paul Getty Museum.ISBN 978-0892367511.
• Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2004).The Archaeology of Greek Colonisation: Essays Dedicated to Sir John Boardman. Oxford University School of Archaeology; 2nd Revised edition.ISBN 978-0947816612.
• Tsetskhladze, Gocha; Snodgrass, A. M. (2002).Greek Settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. British Archaeological Reports.ISBN 978-1841714424.
• Graham (2001).Collected Papers on Greek Colonization. Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN 978-9004116344.
• Dominguez, Adolfo; Sanchez, Carmen (2001).Greek Pottery from the Iberian Peninsula: Archaic and Classical Periods. Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN 978-9004116047.
• Boardman, John; Solovyov, Sergei; Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2001).Northern Pontic Antiquities in the State Hermitage Museum. Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN 978-9004121461.
• Boardman, John (1999).The Greeks Overseas: Their Early Colonies and Trade. Thames & Hudson.ISBN 978-0500281093.
• Tsetskhladze, Gocha R. (1998).The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area. Franz Steiner Verlag.ISBN 978-3515073028.
• Isaac, Benjamin H. (1997).The Greek Settlements in Thrace Until the Macedonian Conquest. Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society, Vol 10. Brill Academic Pub.ISBN 978-9004069213.
• Treister, M Yu (1997).The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History. Brill.ISBN 978-9004104730.
• Cohen, Getzel M. (1996).The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor. Hellenistic Culture and Society. University of California Press.ISBN 978-0520083295.
• Irad, Malkin (1987).Religion and Colonization in Ancient Greece. Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN 978-9004071193.
• Sealey, Raphæl (1976).A History of the Greek City States, 700-338 B. C. University of California Press.ISBN 978-0520031777.

• Greek colonies to 500 BCE
• Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade and their Influence on Greek Art-The Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Topostext: Education / Reference Tool for Greek Civilization