Gladius (Classical Latin:[ˈɡɫadiʊs]) is aLatin word properly referring to the type ofsword that was used byancient Roman foot soldiers starting from the 3rd century BC and until the 3rd century AD. Linguistically, within Latin, the word also came to mean "sword", regardless of the type used.

Gladius
Replica Pompeiigladius
Type	Sword
Place of origin	Carthaginian Spain as theCeltiberian sword, adopted and modified byRome
Service history
In service	3rd century BC – 3rd century AD
Used by	Celtiberians in service toCarthage during thePunic wars Roman foot soldiers during the wars of theRoman Republic andRoman Empire
Specifications
Mass	0.7–1 kg (1.5–2.2 lb)
Length	60–85 cm (24–33 in)
Blade length	45–68 cm (18–27 in)
Width	5–7 cm (2.0–2.8 in)
Blade type	Iron of varying degrees of carbon content, pointed, double-edged
Hilt type	Wood, bronze or ivory

Early ancient Roman swords were similar to those of the Greeks, calledxiphe (pl.,sg.:xiphos). From the 3rd century BC, however, theRomans adopted a weapon based on the sword of theCeltiberians ofHispania in service toCarthage during thePunic Wars, known in Latin as thegladius hispaniensis, meaning "Hispanic-type sword". The Romans improved the weapon and modified it depending on how their battle units waged war, and created over time new types of "gladii" such as theMainz gladius and thePompeii gladius. Finally, in the third century AD the heavy Roman infantry replaced thegladius with thespatha (already common among Roman cavalrymen),^[1] relegating thegladius as a weapon for light Roman infantry.

A fully equipped Romanlegionary after the consulships ofGaius Marius was armed with a sword (gladius), a shield (scutum), one or two javelins (pila), often a dagger (pugio), and perhaps, in the later empire period, darts (plumbatae). Conventionally, soldiers threwpila to disable the enemy's shields and disrupt enemy formations before engaging in close combat, for which they drew thegladius. A soldier generally led with the shield and thrust with the sword.^[2]

Gladius is aLatin masculine noun. Thenominative plural of it isgladiī. However,gladius in Latin refers to any sword, not only the sword described here. The word appears in literature as early as the plays ofPlautus (Casina,Rudens).

Gladius is generally believed to be aCeltic loan in Latin (perhaps via an Etruscan intermediary), derived from ancient Celtic*kladi(b)os or*kladimos "sword" (whence modern Welshcleddyf "sword", modernBretonklezeff, Old Irishclaideb/Modern Irishclaidheamh [itself perhaps a loan from Welsh]; the root of the word may survive in the Old Irish verbclaidid "digs, excavates" and anciently attested in theGallo-Brittonic place name elementcladia/clado "ditch, trench, valley hollow").^{[3][4][5][6][7]}

Modern English words derived fromgladius includegladiator ("swordsman") andgladiolus ("little sword", from thediminutive form ofgladius), aflowering plant with sword-shaped leaves.

According toPolybius, the sword used by the Roman army during theBattle of Telamon in 225 BC, though deemed superior to the cumbersome Gallic swords, was mainly useful to thrust.^[8] These thrusting swords used before the adoption of the Gladius were possibly based on the Greekxiphos.^[9] Later, during theBattle of Cannae in 216 BC, they found Hannibal'sCeltiberianmercenaries wielding swords that excelled at both slashing and thrusting.^[9] A text attributed to Polybius describes the adoption of this design by the Romans even before the end of thewar, which canonical Polybius reaffirms by calling the later Roman swordgladius hispaniensis inLatin andiberiké machaira inGreek.^[9] It is believedScipio Africanus was the promoter of the change after theBattle of Cartagena in 209 BC, after which he set the inhabitants to produce weapons for the Roman army.^[10][11]

In 70 BC, bothClaudius Quadrigarius and Livy relate the story ofTitus Manlius Torquatus using a "Hispanic sword" (gladius Hispanus) in a duel with a Gaul in 361 BC.^[12][13] However, the Gladius was not yet used by the Romans in the 4th century BC, and because of that this has been traditionally considered a terminologicalanachronism caused by the long established naming convention.^[8] It's possible that the Celtiberian sword was first adopted by Romans after encounters with Carthaginian mercenaries of that nationality during theFirst Punic War (264-241 BC), not the second.^[8] In any case, thegladius hispaniensis became particularly known in 200 BC during theSecond Macedonian War, in which Macedonian soldiers became horrified at what Roman swords could do after an early cavalry skirmish.^[9][8] It has been suggested that the sword used by Roman cavalrymen was different from the infantry model, but most academics have discarded this view.^[8]

Arguments for the Celtiberian source of the weapon have been reinforced in recent decades by discovery of early Romangladii that seem to highlight that they were copies of Celtiberian models. The weapon developed in Iberia after La Tène I models, which were adapted to traditional Celtiberian techniques during the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BC.^[14] These weapons are quite original in their design, so that they cannot be confused with Gallic types. As for the origin of the wordgladius, one theory proposes the borrowing of the word from *kladi- during the Gallic wars, relying on the principle thatK often becameG in Latin.Ennius attests the wordgladius may have replacedensis, which until then was used mainly by poets.^[15]

By the time of theRoman Republic, which flourished during theIron Age,steel and the steel-making process was known to the classical world. Pure iron is relatively soft, but pure iron is never found in nature. Natural iron ore contains various impurities insolid solution, which harden the reduced metal by producing irregular-shaped metallic crystals. Thegladius was generally made out of steel.

In Roman times, workersreduced ore in abloomery furnace. The resulting pieces were calledblooms,^[16] which they further worked to remove slag inclusions from the porous surface.

A recent metallurgical study of twoEtrurian swords, one in the form of a Greekkopis from 7th century BCVetulonia, the other in the form of agladius Hispaniensis from 4th century BCClusium (Chiusi), gives insight concerning the manufacture of Roman swords.^[17] The Chiusi sword comes from Romanizedetruria; thus, regardless of the names of the forms (which the authors do not identify), the authors believe the process was continuous from the Etruscans to the Romans.

The Vetulonian sword was crafted by thepattern welding process from five blooms reduced at a temperature of 1,163 °C (2,125 °F). Five strips of varying carbon content were created. A central core of the sword contained the highest: 0.15–0.25% carbon. On its edges were placed four strips of low-carbon steel, 0.05–0.07%, and the whole thing was welded together by forging on the pattern of hammer blows. A blow increased the temperature sufficiently to produce a friction weld at that spot. Forging continued until the steel was cold, producing some centralannealing. The sword was 58 cm (23 in) long.^[17]

The Chiusian sword was created from a single bloom by forging from a temperature of 1,237 °C (2,259 °F). The carbon content increased from 0.05–0.08% at the back side of the sword to 0.35–0.4% on the blade, from which the authors deduce that some form ofcarburization may have been used. The sword was 40 cm (16 in) long and was characterized by a wasp-waist close to the hilt.

Romans continued to forge swords, both as composites and from single pieces. Inclusions of sand and rust weakened the two swords in the study, and no doubt limited the strength of swords during the Roman period.

The craftsmen with the strategic task of making thegladii were calledgladiarii. They were part of the Roman legions asfabri, enjoying the status ofimmunes. There were also public workshops,fabricae, dedicated to the making of thegladii. Epigraphic attestations of thegladiarii have been found in Italy, especially in areas of ancient metallurgic tradition such asCapua andAquileia.^[18]

The wordgladius acquired a general meaning as any type of sword. This use appears as early as the 1st century AD in theBiography of Alexander the Great byQuintus Curtius Rufus.^[19] The republican authors, however, appear to mean a specific type of sword, which is now known from archaeology to have had variants.

Gladii were two-edged for cutting and had a tapered point for stabbing during thrusting. A solid grip was provided by a knobbed hilt added on, possibly with ridges for the fingers. Blade strength was achieved by welding together strips, in which case the sword had a channel down the centre, or by fashioning a single piece of high-carbon steel, rhomboidal in cross-section. The owner's name was often engraved or punched on the blade.

Thehilt of a Roman sword was thecapulus. It was often ornate, especially the sword-hilts of officers and dignitaries.

Stabbing was a very efficient technique, as stabbing wounds, especially in the abdominal area, were almost always deadly.^[20] However, thegladius in some circumstances was used for cutting or slashing, as is indicated byLivy's account of theMacedonian Wars, wherein the Macedonian soldiers were horrified to see dismembered bodies.^[21]

Though the primary infantry attack was thrusting at stomach height, they were trained to take any advantage, such as slashing at kneecaps beneath the shield wall.

Thegladius was sheathed in ascabbard mounted on a belt or shoulder strap. Some say the soldier reached across his body to draw it, and others claim that the position of the shield made this method of drawing impossible. Acenturion wore it on the opposite side as a mark of distinction.^[22]

Towards the end of the 2nd century AD and during the 3rd century thespatha gradually took the place of thegladius in the Roman legions.

Several different designs were used; among collectors andhistorical reenactors, the three primary kinds are known as theMainz gladius, theFulham gladius, and thePompeii gladius (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have uncovered an earlier version, thegladius Hispaniensis.

The differences between these varieties are subtle. The original Hispanic sword, which was used during the republic, had a slight "wasp-waist" or "leaf-blade" curvature. The Mainz variety came into use on the frontier in the early empire. It kept the curvature, but shortened and widened the blade and made the point triangular. At home, the less battle-effective Pompeii version came into use. It eliminated the curvature, lengthened the blade, and diminished the point. The Fulham was a compromise, with straight edges and a long point.^[23]

The gladius Hispaniensis was a Roman sword used from around 216 BC until 20 BC. Its blade had a length of 60–68 cm (24–27 in), and the sword was 75–85 cm (30–33 in) long. The width of the sword was 5 cm (2.0 in). It was the largest and heaviest of thegladii, weighing 1 kg (2.2 lb) or 900 g (2.0 lb). This gladius was also the earliest and longest blade. It had a pronounced leaf-shape.

TheMainz Gladius is made of heavily corroded iron and a sheath made of tinned and gilded bronze. The blade was 50–55 cm (20–22 in) long and 7 cm (2.8 in) in width. The sword was 65–70 cm (26–28 in) long. The sword weighed 800 g (1.8 lb). The point of the sword was more triangular than the Gladius Hispaniensis. The Mainz Gladius still had wasp-waisted curves. The decoration on the scabbard illustrates the ceding of military victory toAugustus by Tiberius after a successful Alpine campaign. Augustus is semi-nude, and sits in the pose of Jupiter, flanked by the Roman gods of Victory and Mars Ultor, whileTiberius, in military dress, presents Augustus with a statuette of Victory.

TheFulham gladius orMainz-Fulham gladius was a Roman sword that was used afterAulus Plautius' invasion of Britain in 43 AD.^[24] The Romans used it until the end of the 1st century. TheFulham gladius has a triangular tip. The length of the blade is 50–55 cm (20–22 in). The length of the sword is 65–70 cm (26–28 in). The width of the blade is 6 cm (2.4 in). The swords weighs 700 g (1.5 lb) (wooden hilt).^[25][26] A full size replica can be seen atFulham Palace,Fulham.

ThePompeii gladius was named by modern historians after the Roman town ofPompeii. This type ofgladius was by far the most popular one. Four examples of the sword type were found in Pompeii, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. This is the shortest of thegladii. It is often confused with thespatha, which was a longer, slashing weapon used initially by mountedauxilians. Over the years, the Pompeii got longer, and these later versions are called semi-spathes. The length of the blade was 45–50 cm (18–20 in). The length of the sword is 60–65 cm (24–26 in). The width of the blade is 5 cm (2.0 in). The sword weighs 700 g (1.5 lb) (wooden hilt).

• Iron Age sword
• Model 1816 French artillery short sword
• Model 1832 foot artillery sword
• Qama
• Roman military personal equipment

^ This is only true for thenominative case; For more information, see theLatin declension page.

• Significant Contributions in the Study of European Arms and Armor, bibliography by the Arms and Armor Society of America.
• Armamentarium: subject bibliographies: swords
• John William Humphrey,John Peter Oleson, Andrew Neil Sherwood,Greek and Roman Technology: a sourcebook
• Livius, Titus (known asLivy) (1982).Rome and Italy: Books VI-X of the History of Rome from its Foundation, translated by Betty Radice. Penguin Books.ISBN 978-0-14-044388-2.

The articles in the links below often differ both in theory and in detail. They should not necessarily be understood as fully professional articles but should be appreciated for their presentational value.

• Roman Military Equipment at the Roman Numismatic Gallery (romancoins.info)

• Legio IX Hispana: photos of historical reconstructionists drawing and holding gladii.
• "Legio XX Gladius".
• "Legio XXIV Gladiator page".
• "The Roman Legionary and His Equipment in The First Century AD: An Assessment of the findings of The Ermine Street Guard". Archived fromthe original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved2007-08-24.

• Ross Cowan,Gladius Gallicus^{[permanent dead link‍]}, an introduction to the Gallic-type swords used by the Romans prior to the adoption of thegladius Hispaniensis
• Iron of the Empire: The History and Development of the Roman Gladius (myArmoury.com article)
• Janet Lang,Study of the Metallography of Some Roman Swords
• Niko Silvester,From Rapier to Langsax: Sword Structure in the British Isles in the Bronze and Iron Ages
• Richard F. Burton,The Sword Amongst the Barbarians (Early Roman Empire).
• Taylor, Michael J. "Panoply and Identity during the Roman Republic."Papers of the British School at Rome 88 (2020), 31-65.[2]