Canada has a vast geography that occupies much of the continent ofNorth America, sharing aland border with thecontiguous United States to the south and the U.S. state ofAlaska to the northwest. Canada stretches from theAtlantic Ocean in the east to thePacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies theArctic Ocean.^[1]Greenland is to the northeast with a shared border onHans Island. To the southeast Canada shares amaritime boundary with France'soverseas collectivity ofSaint Pierre and Miquelon, the last vestige ofNew France.^[2] By total area (including its waters), Canada is thesecond-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, however, Canadaranks fourth, the difference being due to it having the world's largest proportion of fresh water lakes.^[3] Of Canada'sthirteen provinces and territories, only two are landlocked (Alberta andSaskatchewan) while the other eleven all directly border one of three oceans.

Geography of Canada

BC AB SK MB ON QC NB PE NS NL YT NT NU
Continent	North America
Region	Northern America
Coordinates	60°00′N95°00′W / 60.000°N 95.000°W /60.000; -95.000
Area	Ranked 2nd
• Total	9,984,671 km2 (3,855,103 sq mi)
• Land	91.08%
• Water	8.92%
Coastline	243,042 km (151,019 mi)
Borders	8,893 km
Highest point	Mount Logan, 5,959 m (19,551 ft)
Lowest point	Atlantic Ocean, Sea Level
Longest river	Mackenzie River, 4,241 km (2,635 mi)
Largest lake	Great Bear Lake 31,153 km2 (12,028 sq mi)
Climate	temperate, orhumid continental tosubarctic orarctic in north, andtundra in mountainous areas, and the far north
Terrain	mostlyplains andmountains in west, to highlands (low mountains) in the south east, and east, to flatlands in theGreat lakes
Natural resources	iron ore,nickel,zinc, copper, gold, lead,molybdenum,potash,diamonds, silver, fish, timber,wildlife, coal, petroleum, natural gas,hydropower
Natural hazards	permafrost,cyclonic storms,tornadoes, earthquakes,forest fires
Environmental issues	air andwater pollution,acid rains
Exclusive economic zone	5,599,077 km2 (2,161,816 sq mi)

Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement,Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip ofEllesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.^[4] Much of theCanadian Arctic is covered by ice andpermafrost.^[5] Canada hasthe longest coastline in the world, with a total length of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi);^[6] additionally,its border with the United States is the world's longest land border, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi).^[7] Three of Canada'sArctic islands,Baffin Island,Victoria Island andEllesmere Island, are among the ten largest in the world.^[8]

Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: theCanadian Shield, theinterior plains, theGreat Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, theAppalachian region, theWestern Cordillera,Hudson Bay Lowlands and theArctic Archipelago.^[9] Canada is also divided intofifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones,^[10] encompassing over 80,000 classified species of life.^[11] Since the end of the lastglacial period, Canada has consisted ofeight distinct forest regions, including extensiveboreal forest on theCanadian Shield;^[12] 42 percent of the land acreage of Canada is covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land), made up mostly ofspruce,poplar andpine.^[13] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 greater than 100 km² (39 sq mi)—which is more than any other country, containing much of the world'sfresh water.^[14][15] There are also freshwater glaciers in theCanadian Rockies, theCoast Mountains and theArctic Cordillera.^[16] A recent globalremote sensing analysis also suggested that there were 6,477 km² of tidal flats in Canada, making it the 5th ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there.^[17]Protected areas of Canada andNational Wildlife Areas have been established to preserve ecosystems.^[18]

Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably theMount Meager massif,Mount Garibaldi,Mount Cayley, and theMount Edziza volcanic complex.^[19] Average winter and summer hightemperatures across Canada range fromArctic weather in the north, to hot summers in the southern regions, with four distinct seasons.

Canada covers 9,984,670 km² (3,855,100 sq mi) and a panoply of various geoclimatic regions, of which there are seven main regions.^[9] Canada also encompasses vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi).^[20] Thephysical geography of Canada is widely varied.Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent innortherly Arctic regions and through theCanadian Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flatCanadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.^[21] TheGreat Lakes feed theSt. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.

TheNational Topographic System is used byNatural Resources Canada for providing general purposetopographic maps of the country. The maps provide details on landforms and terrain, lakes and rivers, forested areas, administrative zones, populated areas, roads and railways, as well as other man-made features.^[22] These maps are used by all levels of government and industry forforest fire andflood control (as well as other environmental issues), depiction of crop areas, right-of-way, real estate planning, development of natural resources and highway planning.^[22]

TheAppalachian mountain range extends fromAlabama insouthern United States through theGaspé Peninsula and theAtlantic Provinces, creating rolling hills indented by river valleys.^[23] It also runs through parts of southernQuebec.^[23]

The Appalachian Mountains (more specifically theChic-Choc,Notre Dame, andLong Range Mountains) are an old and eroded range of mountains, approximately 380 million years in age. Notable mountains in the Appalachians includeMount Jacques-Cartier (Quebec, 1,268 m or 4,160 ft),Mount Carleton (New Brunswick, 817 m or 2,680 ft),The Cabox (Newfoundland, 814 m or 2,671 ft).^[24] Parts of the Appalachians are home to a richendemic flora and fauna and are considered to have beennunataks during the lastglaciation era.

The northeastern part ofAlberta, northern parts ofSaskatchewan,Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec, all ofLabrador and theGreat Northern Peninsula ofNewfoundland, eastern mainlandNorthwest Territories, most ofNunavut's mainland and, of itsArctic Archipelago,Baffin Island and significant bands through Somerset, Southampton, Devon and Ellesmere islands are located on a vastrock base known as theCanadian Shield.^[26] The Shield mostly consists of eroded hilly terrain and contains many lakes and important rivers used forhydroelectric production, particularly in northern Quebec and Ontario. The Shield also encloses an area ofwetlands around theHudson Bay. Some particular regions of the Shield are referred to asmountain ranges, including theTorngat andLaurentian Mountains.^[27]

The Shield cannot support intensive agriculture, although there is subsistence agriculture and small dairy farms in many of the river valleys and around the abundant lakes, particularly in the southern regions.Boreal forest covers much of the shield, with a mix ofconifers that provide valuable timber resources in areas such as theCentral Canadian Shield forestsecoregion that covers much ofNorthern Ontario.

The Canadian Shield is known for its vastmineral reserves such asemeralds,diamonds andcopper, and is there also called the "mineral house".^[27]

While the largest part of the Canadian Arctic is composed of seemingly endlesspermafrost andtundra north of thetree line, it encompasses geological regions of varying types: theArctic Cordillera (with theBritish Empire Range and theUnited States Range onEllesmere Island) contains the northernmost mountain system in the world. TheArctic Lowlands and Hudson Bay lowlands comprise a substantial part of the geographic region often designated as the Canadian Shield (in contrast to the sole geologic area). The ground in the Arctic is mostly composed of permafrost, making construction difficult and often hazardous, and agriculture virtually impossible.^[36]

The Arctic, when defined as everything north of the tree line, covers most ofNunavut and the northernmost parts of Northwest Territories,Yukon, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador. The archipelago consists of 36,563 islands, of which 94 are classified as major islands, being larger than 130 km² (50 sq mi), and cover a total area of 1,400,000 km² (540,000 sq mi).^[36]

TheCoast Mountains inBritish Columbia run from the lowerFraser River and theFraser Canyon northwestward, separating theInterior Plateau from the Pacific Ocean.^[37] Its southeastern end is separated from theNorth Cascades by theFraser Lowland, where nearly a third ofWestern Canada's population reside.

The coastal flank of the Coast Mountains is characterized by an intense network offjords and associated islands, very similar to theNorwegian coastline inNorthern Europe; while their inland side transitions to the highplateau withdryland valleys notable for a series of largealpine lakes similar to those in southernSwitzerland, beginning in deep mountains and ending in flatland. They are subdivided in three main groups, thePacific Ranges between the Fraser River andBella Coola, theKitimat Ranges from there northwards to theNass River, and theBoundary Ranges from there to the mountain terminus in Yukon atChampagne Pass andChilkat Pass northwest ofHaines, Alaska.^[37] TheSaint Elias Mountains lie to their west and northwest, while theYukon Ranges and Yukon Basin lie to their north. On the inland side of the Boundary Ranges are theTahltan andTagish Highlands and also theSkeena Mountains, part of theInterior Mountains system, which also extend southwards on the inland side of theKitimat Ranges.^[37]

The terrain of the main spine of the Coast Mountains is typified by heavyglaciation, including several very largeicefields of varying elevation. Of the three subdivisions, the Pacific Ranges are the highest and are crowned byMount Waddington, while the Boundary Ranges contain the largest icefields, theJuneau Icefield being the largest. The Kitimat Ranges are lower and less glacier-covered than either of the other two groupings, but are extremely rugged and dense.

The Coast Mountains are made ofigneous andmetamorphic rock from an episode ofarc volcanism related tosubduction of theKula andFarallon Plates during theLaramide orogeny about 100 million years ago.^[38] The widespreadgranite forming the Coast Mountains formed when magma intruded and cooled at depth beneath volcanoes of theCoast Range Arc whereas the metamorphic formed when intruding magma heated the surrounding rock to produceschist.

TheInsular Mountains extend fromVancouver Island in the south to theHaida Gwaii in the north on theBritish Columbia Coast. It contains two main mountain ranges, theVancouver Island Ranges on Vancouver Island and theQueen Charlotte Mountains on Haida Gwaii.^[39]

The northernmost point of land within the boundaries of Canada isCape Columbia,Ellesmere Island,Nunavut83°06′40″N69°58′19″W / 83.111°N 69.972°W /83.111; -69.972 (Cape Columbia, Nunavut).^[46] The northernmost point of the Canadian mainland isZenith Point onBoothia Peninsula, Nunavut72°00′07″N94°39′18″W / 72.002°N 94.655°W /72.002; -94.655 (Zenith Point, Nunavut).^[46] The southernmost point isMiddle Island, inLake Erie, Ontario (41°41′N 82°40′W); the southernmost water point lies just south of the island, on the Ontario–Ohio border (41°40′35″N). The southernmost point of the Canadian mainland isPoint Pelee, Ontario41°54′32″N82°30′32″W / 41.909°N 82.509°W /41.909; -82.509 (Point Pelee, Ontario).^[46] The lowest point is sea level at 0 m,^[47] whilst the highest point isMount Logan,Yukon, at 5,959 m / 19,550 ft60°34′01″N140°24′18″W / 60.567°N 140.405°W /60.567; -140.405 (Mount Logan, Yukon).^[46]

The westernmost point isBoundary Peak 187 (60°18′22.929″N 141°00′7.128″W) at the southern end of theYukon–Alaska border, which roughly follows 141°W but leans very slightly east as it goes North60°18′04″N141°00′36″W / 60.301°N 141.010°W /60.301; -141.010 (Boundary Peak 187).^[48][46] The easternmost point isCape Spear, Newfoundland (47°31′N 52°37′W)47°31′23″N52°37′08″W / 47.523°N 52.619°W /47.523; -52.619 (Cape Spear, Newfoundland).^[46] The easternmost point of the Canadian mainland is Elijah Point,Cape St. Charles, Labrador (52°13′N 55°37′W)52°13′01″N55°37′16″W / 52.217°N 55.621°W /52.217; -55.621 (Elijah Point, Labrador).^[46]

The Canadianpole of inaccessibility is allegedly near Jackfish River,Alberta (59°2′N 112°49′W).^[49] The furthest straight-line distance that can be travelled to Canadian points of land is between the southwest tip ofKluane National Park and Reserve (next toMount Saint Elias) and Cripple Cove,Newfoundland (nearCape Race) at a distance of 3,005.60 nautical miles (5,566.37 km; 3,458.78 mi).

Climate varies widely from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience acontinental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severewind chills.^[50] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).^[51]

Much ofNorthern Canada is covered by ice andpermafrost; however, the future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result ofclimate change in Canada.^[52] Canada's annual average temperature over land has warmed by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.^[53] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.^[53] In the southern regions of Canada,air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted inacid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth andagricultural productivity in Canada.^[54]

Canada is divided into fifteen major terrestrial and five marine ecozones, that are further subdivided into 53ecoprovinces, 194ecoregions, and 1,027ecodistricts.^[10] These eco-areas encompass over 80,000 classified species ofCanadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.^[55] Due to pollution,loss of biodiversity, over-exploitation of commercial species, invasive species, and habitat loss, there are currently more than800 wild life species at risk of being lost.^[56]

Canada's major biomes are thetundra,boreal forest,grassland, andtemperate deciduous forest.British Columbia contains several smaller biomes, including;mountain forest which extends toAlberta, and a smalltemperate rainforest along thePacific coast, thesemi arid desert located in theOkanagan andalpine tundra in the higher mountainous regions.^[57]

Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.^[58] Approximately half of Canada is covered by forest, totaling around 2.4 million km² (0.93 million sq mi).^[59] Theboreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largestintact forest on Earth, with around 300,000 square kilometres (120,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.^[60] TheCanadian Arctic tundra is the second-largest vegetation region in the country consisting of dwarfshrubs,sedges andgrasses,mosses andlichens.^[61]

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater areconservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated asprotected areas.^[18] Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.^[18]

Canada holds vast reserves of water: its rivers discharge nearly 7% of the world's renewable water supply,^[66]Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 greater than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi)—which is more than any other country and has the third largest amount ofglacier water.^[67] Canada is also home to about twenty five percent (134.6 million ha) of the world'swetlands that support a vast array of local ecosystems.^[68]

Canada's waterways host forty-seven rivers of at least 600 kilometres (370 mi) in length, with the two longest being theMackenzie River, that begins atGreat Slave Lake and ends in theArctic Ocean, with its drainage basin covering a large part of northwestern Canada, and theSaint Lawrence River, which drains theGreat Lakes into theGulf of St. Lawrence ending in theAtlantic Ocean. The Mackenzie, including its tributaries is over 4,200 kilometres (2,600 mi) in length and lies within the second largestdrainage basin of North America, while the St. Lawrence 3,058 kilometres (1,900 mi) in length, drains the world'slargest system of freshwater lakes.^[69]

The Atlantic watershed drains the entirety of theAtlantic provinces (parts of the Quebec-Labrador border are fixed at the Atlantic Ocean-Arctic Oceancontinental divide), most of inhabited Quebec and large parts of southern Ontario. It is mostly drained by the economically important St. Lawrence River and its tributaries, notably theSaguenay,Manicouagan, and Ottawa rivers. The Great Lakes andLake Nipigon are also drained by the St. Lawrence. TheChurchill River andSaint John River are other important elements of the Atlantic watershed in Canada.^[70]

TheHudson Bay watershed drains over a third of Canada. It covers Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec, most of Saskatchewan, southern Alberta, southwestern Nunavut, and the southern half ofBaffin Island. This basin is most important in fighting drought in theprairies and producing hydroelectricity, especially in Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec. Major elements of this watershed includeLake Winnipeg, Nelson River, the North Saskatchewan andSouth Saskatchewan Rivers,Assiniboine River, andNettilling Lake on Baffin Island.Wollaston Lake lies on the boundary between the Hudson Bay and Arctic Ocean watersheds anddrains into both. It is the largest lake in the world that naturally drains in two directions.^[70]

Thecontinental divide in the Rockies separates the Pacific watershed in British Columbia and Yukon from the Arctic and Hudson Bay watersheds. This watershed irrigates the agriculturally important areas of inner British Columbia (such as theOkanagan andKootenay valleys), and is used to produce hydroelectricity. Major elements are the Yukon,Columbia and Fraser rivers.^[70]

The northern parts of Alberta, Manitoba, and British Columbia, most of Northwest Territories and Nunavut, and parts of Yukon are drained by the Arctic watershed. This watershed has been little used for hydroelectricity, with the exception of the Mackenzie River. ThePeace, Athabasca andLiard Rivers, as well as Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake (respectively the largest and second largest lakes wholly enclosed by Canada) are significant elements of the Arctic watershed. Each of these elements eventually merges with the Mackenzie, thereby draining the vast majority of the Arctic watershed.^[70]

The southernmost part of Alberta drains into the Gulf of Mexico through theMilk River and its tributaries. The Milk River originates in the Rocky Mountains ofMontana, then flows into Alberta, then returns into the United States, where it is drained by theMissouri River. A small area of southwestern Saskatchewan is drained byBattle Creek, which empties into the Milk River.^[70]

Canada's abundance ofnatural resources is reflected in their continued importance in theeconomy of Canada. Major resource-based industries arefisheries,forestry, agriculture,petroleum products and mining.^[71]

The fisheries industry has historically been one of Canada's strongest. Unmatchedcod stocks on theGrand Banks of Newfoundland launched this industry in the 16th century. Today these stocks are nearly depleted, and their conservation has become a preoccupation of theAtlantic Provinces. On the West Coast,tuna stocks are now restricted. The less depleted (but still greatly diminished)salmon population continues to drive a strong fisheries industry. Canada claims 22 km (12 nmi) of territorial sea, a contiguous zone of 44 km (24 nmi), anexclusive economic zone of 5,599,077 km² (2,161,816 sq mi) with 370 km (200 nmi) and a continental shelf of 370 km (200 nmi) or to the edge of the continental margin.

Five per cent of Canada's land area is arable, none of which is for permanent crops. Three per cent of Canada's land area is covered by permanent pastures. Canada has 7,200 square kilometres (2,800 sq mi) of irrigated land (1993 estimate). Agricultural regions in Canada include the Canadian Prairies, theLower Mainland and various regions within theInterior of British Columbia, theSt. Lawrence Basin and the CanadianMaritimes. Main crops in Canada includeflax,oats, wheat, maize,barley,sugar beets andrye in the prairies; flax and maize inWestern Ontario; Oats and potatoes in the Maritimes.Fruit and vegetables are grown primarily in theAnnapolis Valley of Nova Scotia,Southwestern Ontario, theGolden Horseshoe region of Ontario, along the south coast ofGeorgian Bay and in theOkanagan Valley of British Columbia. Cattle andsheep are raised in the valleys and plateaus of British Columbia. Cattle, sheep andhogs are raised on the prairies, cattle and hogs in Western Ontario, sheep and hogs in Quebec, and sheep in the Maritimes. There are significant dairy regions in central Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence Valley,northeastern Ontario, southwestern Ontario, theRed River valley of Manitoba and the valleys in theBritish Columbia Interior, onVancouver Island and in theLower Mainland.

Fossil fuels are a more recently developed resource in Canada, withoil andgas being extracted from deposits in theWestern Canadian Sedimentary Basin since the mid-1900s. While Canada'scrude oil deposits are fewer, technological developments in recent decades have opened up oil production in Alberta'sOil Sands to the point where Canada now has some of the largest reserves of oil in the world. In other forms, Canadian industry has a long history of extracting large coal and natural gas reserves.

Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron,nickel,zinc, copper, gold, lead,molybdenum, anduranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers. Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, isSudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that theSudbury Basin is an ancientmeteoriteimpact crater. The nearby, but less knownTemagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal-rich impact crater.^[72] The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.

Canada's many rivers have afforded extensive development of hydroelectric power. Extensively developed in British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador, the many dams have long provided a clean, dependable source of energy.

Air pollution and resultingacid rain severely affects lakes and damages forests.^[54] Metal smelting, coal-burning utilities, and vehicle emissions impact agricultural and forest productivity. Ocean waters are also becoming contaminated by agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities.^[54]

Globalclimate change and the warming of the polar region will likely cause significant changes to the environment, including loss of thepolar bear,^[73] the exploration for resource then the extraction of these resources and an alternative transport route to thePanama Canal through theNorthwest Passage.

Canada is currently warming at twice the global average, and this is effectively irreversible.^[74]

Canada is divided intoten provinces and three territories. According toStatistics Canada, 72.0 percent of the population is concentrated within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the nation's southern border with the United States, 70.0% live south of the49th parallel, and over 60 percent of the population lives along the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River betweenWindsor, Ontario, andQuebec City. This leaves the vast majority of Canada's territory as sparsely populated wilderness; Canada's population density is 3.5 people per square kilometre (9.1 people/sq mi), among the lowest in the world. Despite this, 79.7 percent of Canada's population resides in urban areas, where population densities are increasing.^[75]

Canada shares with the U.S. the world'slongest binational border at 8,893 kilometres (5,526 mi); 2,477 kilometres (1,539 mi) are withAlaska. The Danish island dependency ofGreenland lies to Canada's northeast, separated from theCanadian Arctic islands byBaffin Bay andDavis Strait. As of June 14, 2022, Canada shares a land border with Greenland on Hans Island.^[76] The French islands ofSaint Pierre and Miquelon lie off the southern coast ofNewfoundland in theGulf of St. Lawrence and have a maritime territorial enclave within Canada'sexclusive economic zone.^[77]

Canada's geographic proximity to the United States has historically bound the two countries together in the political world as well. Canada's position between theSoviet Union (now Russia) and the U.S. was strategically important during theCold War since the route over the North Pole and Canada was the fastest route by air between the two countries and the most direct route forintercontinental ballistic missiles. Since the end of the Cold War, there has been growing speculation thatCanada's Arctic maritime claims may become increasingly important ifglobal warming melts the ice enough to open theNorthwest Passage.

• Atlas of Canada
• Canadian Geographic
• Canadian Rockies
• Extreme points of North America
• List of highest points of Canadian provinces and territories
• National Parks of Canada
• List of Ultras of Canada
• Mountain peaks of Canada
• Temperature in Canada
•  Canada portal

• Government of Canada –The Atlas of Canada
• Canadian Geographic –The Canadian Atlas Online
• Cartography of Canada –The Canadian Map Online
• Canada.The World Factbook.Central Intelligence Agency.