TheFrisiavones (alsoFrisaevones orFrisaebones) were aGermanic people living near the northern border ofGallia Belgica during the early first millennium AD. Little is known about them, but they appear to have resided in the area of what is today the southernNetherlands, possibly in two distinct regions, one in the islands of the river deltas ofHolland, and one to the southeast of it.
The nameFrisiavones is only mentioned in one classical text, theNaturalis Historia by the Roman writerPliny the Elder, published in 77 AD. InRoman-eraepigraphy, however, it appears several times.[1][2] The earliest inscriptions referring to theFrisiavones date back to the early 2nd century AD, and are found on votive, funerary and military monuments.[3] SixRoman military diplomas in particular, issued by Roman emperors in Britain in the years 105–178 AD, complemented by five inscriptions found in Roman forts in Britain, mention a cohort namedFrisiavonum orFrisiavon.[4]
Besides the purely graphic variationFrisaebones, ano-stem *Fris(i)avi may also be attested in theMatribus Frisavis Paternis and the dative singularFrisao, which is probably an inaccurate spelling of *Frisavo.[5]
According to Günter Neumann, thephonology ofFrisiavones, the initialf- in particular, suggests aGermanic origin. It is presumed to stem from the tribal nameFrisi attached to the suffix-avo-, and may have meant 'those belonging to the Frisii, descending from the Frisii'.[6] However, scholars note that no historical or geographical relation can be established between the Frisii and the Frisiavones apart from the linguistic connection.[1][7]
The Frisiavones are not listed among theGermani Cisrhenani by Caesar, which suggests that they settled later in the region, possibly invited byAgrippa during the reorganization of the newly conquered lands in northern Gauls during the second part of the 1st century BC.[5] The Roman writerPliny, who had visited the region in 47 AD, seems to associate the nameFrisiavones with two distinct areas.[8] In his description of the inhabitants of the islands of theRhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta, he lists the Frisiavones as an ethnic group distinct from theFrisii, along withBatavians,Canninefates,Chauci,Sturii andMarsaci.[9][10] In his description of Gallia Belgica, he lists the Frisiavones again, this time between theBaetasi andSunuci, and not with "the Batavi, and the peoples whom we have already mentioned as dwelling on the islands of the Rhine".[11][12]
Tacitus, writing in the second half of the 1st century AD, divides the Frisii into two groups: the Greater Frisii (maiores) and the Lesser Frisii (minores).[13] Most authors agree that the Frisii were in fact divided among Greater and Lesser, and they generally place the Lesser Frisii inNorth Holland, and the Greater Frisii inFriesland andGroningen.[14] However, scholars generally reject the identification of the Lesser Frisii with the Frisiavones since the Frisii and Frisiavones were clearly perceived as two distinct groups by Roman writers of the 2nd century AD.[1][15][7]
No specific archaeological culture can be associated with the Frisiavones, and we have no archaeological indication regarding their territory.[16] Based on epigraphic evidence, a number of scholars associate their homeland with the western part ofNorth Brabant, southernSouth Holland, orZeeland.[16][17] One votive inscription from the 2nd century AD refers to theregio frisiavonum as part ofGallia Belgica.[18]Edith Wightman proposed that the borders ofGermania Inferior lay west and south of the Meuse rather than around it, thus including the territory of the Frisiavones near theBatavi, Marsaci and Sturii. She mentions one inscription fromBulla Regia that refers to an area comprising theTungri, Batavians and Frisiavones, and thus stretching over two provinces.[19]
Although the capital of theircivitas is not known, they were treated as a separated region and had to pay taxes to Rome, suggesting that the Frisiavones lived in a Romanized society.[7] According to Wightman, theMarsaci and theSturii could have beenpagi (smaller geographical units) within thecivitas of the Frisiavones, or else in that of theMenapii.[9]
The areas usually attributed to the Frisiavones do not match with the regions where 'Frisian' pottery has been found, suggesting that the material cultures of the Frisii and Frisiavones were not related.[16]
The name of a goddess,Matres Frisavae Paternea, found on a votive nearXanten, has been interpreted as related to the Frisiavones, although it could also bear the name of the Frisii.[18]
The Frisiavones were possibly clients of theBatavi, for whom they supplied auxiliary troops and contingents that came to be incorporated into Batavian units of theRoman army.[20][21] This situation may have persisted until theBatavian revolt (69–70 AD). According to Nico Roymans, "after the Batavian revolt the Frisiavones and the Cananefates were given an opportunity to express their own identity."[22]
From the end of the 1st century, the Frisiavones were active participants in the Roman army, and they were given their own ethnic unit, theCohors I Frisiavonum, formed at the latest around 80 AD.[18] TheCohors was active in Britain during the 2nd century.[23] Some Frisiavones also served in theequites singulares of the RomanPraetorian Guard, which could mean that they were granted Roman citizenship during theFlavian period.[7]
