Eastern Lombard is a group of closely related variants ofLombard, aGallo-Italic language spoken inLombardy, mainly in the provinces ofBergamo,Brescia andMantua, in the area aroundCremona and in parts ofTrentino.^[2] Its main variants areBergamasque and Brescian.^[3][4]

In Italian-speaking contexts, Eastern Lombard is often called asdialetti (lit. 'dialects'), understood to mean not a variety ofItalian, but a local language that is part of theRomance languagesdialect continuum that pre-dates the establishment of Tuscan-based Italian.

Eastern Lombard andItalian have only limitedmutual intelligibility, like many other Romance languages spoken in Italy.

Eastern Lombard does not have any official status either inLombardy or anywhere else: the onlyofficial language in Lombardy isItalian.

Eastern Lombard is aRomance language of theGallo-Italic branch, closer toOccitan,Catalan,French, etc. than toItalian, with a Celtic substratum.

Eastern Lombard is primarily spoken in EasternLombardy (NorthernItaly), in theprovinces ofBergamo andBrescia, in the Northern region of theprovince of Mantua and in the area aroundCrema.The varieties spoken in these regions are generally mutually intelligible for speakers of neighboring areas, but this is not always true for distant peripheral areas. For instance, an inhabitant of the alpine valleys ofBergamo can hardly be understood by a rural inhabitant of the plains ofMantua. Differences include lexical, grammatical and phonetic aspects.

The following notes are essentially based on the variety of Eastern Lombard spoken inBrescia. The basic principle are generally valid also for the other varieties but local discrepancies can be found.

Eastern Lombard has 9vowels and 20consonants.

Thevoiced consonants/b/,/d/,/ɡ/,/v/,/z/,/dʒ/ never occur at the end of a word.^[5] This phenomenon, common to other languages (includingGerman,Catalan,Dutch,Turkish andRussian), is calledfinal devoicing. The phoneme/ʃ/ only occurs in loanwords, often borrowings from Italian. For example,scià, "to ski" (from Italiansciare) is pronounced/ʃiˈa/. The phoneme/tʃ/ is pronounced[j] before a consonant. This never occurs inside a word as the segment/tʃ/ + consonant doesn't exist in Eastern Lombard. However, it does occur when/tʃ/ appears word-finally preceding another word which begins with a consonant.^[5] For example:

• I è nacc vià[iɛˌnajˈvja] = "they have gone away"vs
  i è nacc a spas[iɛˌnatʃaˈspas] = "they have gone for a leisurely walk"

• Töcc du[tøjˈdu] = "both", "each of the two"vs
  töcc öndes[tøtʃˈøndes] = "all of the eleven"

The approximants/j/ and/w/ are distinct phonemes from the vocalic sounds/i/,/u/. This can be seen in the following examples:

• /kwat/ = "how much"vs/kuˈat/ = "brooded"
• /pjat/ = "dish"vs/piˈat/ = "bitten"^[6]

Locally, the alveolar fricative[s] is replaced by the glottal fricative[h]. This mainly happens in the prealpine valleys of the provinces of Bergamo and Brescia;^{[n 1]} thusBrèssa ("Brescia") is pronounced[ˈbrɛhɔ] instead of[ˈbrɛsɔ]. However, even in areas where this phenomenon is the rule, there are some interesting exceptions to take in account. Words likegrassie ("thanks") are never pronounced[ˈɡrahje]. At present, the most common pronunciation is[ˈɡrasje] but a more genuine outcome (and often preferred by aged people) would be[ˈɡrahtʃe].^[7]

Other examples for this feature:

• Licensià ("to dismiss, to fire") =[litʃenˈsja] /[lehenˈtʃa]
• Cristià ("Christian") =[krisˈtja] /[krihˈtʃa]
• Pasiù ("passion") =[paˈsju] /[pahˈtʃu]

Regressiveassimilation at word boundaries is common in Eastern Lombard. Assimilation can be either complete or partial. Complete assimilation occurs when two occlusive sounds fall in contact. In this case the first occlusive is completely absorbed by the second and the resulting sound has all the features of the second consonant but is notably lengthened. For example:

• el ga fat pàla =[ɛlɡafa‿ˈpːalɔ]
• l'è tròp calt ("it's too hot") =[ˌlɛtrɔ‿ˈkːalt]
• el gat bianc ("the white cat") =[elɡa‿ˈbːjaŋk]

The same phenomenon occurs when an occlusive consonant precedes a nasal or a liquid consonant. For example:

• en gat négher ("a black cat") =[ɛŋɡa‿ˈnːeɡɛr]
• l'è tròp mis =[ˌlɛtrɔ‿ˈmːis]
• so ché strac mórt ("I'm dead tired")=[soˌkestra‿ˈmːort]

Complete assimilation can also occur when an occlusive precedes a fricative. For example:l'è nit vért =[ˌlɛni‿ˈvːert].

When a sequence of nasal+occlusive falls in contact with another occlusive or a fricative, the first occlusive is completely elided and the nasal undergoes partial assimilation. In this case no lengthening occurs. For example:

• el ga 'l sanch blö ("he's got blue blood")=[ɛlˌɡalsam‿ˈblø]
• l'è lonc fés =[ˌlɛloɱ‿ˈfes]

But when an occlusive precedes/z/, assimilation involves both consonants and the result is an affricate sound:

• l'è nit zó ècc =[lɛˌni‿dːzoˈɛtʃ]
• l'è tròp zalt ("it's too yellow") =[ˌlɛtrɔ‿ˈdːzalt]

The phoneme/n/ can undergo assimilation inplace of articulation with a following consonant. Thus, the /n/ in/nk/ and/nɡ/ is a velar[ŋ], the /n/ in/nv/ and/nf/ is a labiodental[ɱ]. Within a word, the phoneme/n/ is never transcribed before/p/ and/b/, where/m/ is written instead. Nasal assimilation, including/n/ to/m/, also takes place across word boundaries. For example:

• en ca ("a dog") =[ɛŋ‿ˈka]
• vàghen fò ("hurry up") =[ˌvaɡeɱ‿ˈfɔ]
• l'an pasàt ("last year") =[ˌlam‿paˈsat]

Eastern Lombard has 9 vocalic sounds:^[5]

Only three vocalic phonemes occur in unstressed final syllables:/a/ in open syllables only, and/o/ and/e/ in both open and closed syllables. Other vowels can occur in final syllables in loanwords.

Locally, the phoneme/a/ is pronounced[ɔ] when it appears as last sound of the word in an unstressed syllable^[5] (actually slightly more close than cardinal[ɔ]). For example:

• lüna ("moon") =[ˈlynɔ]
• setemana ("week") =[sɛtɛˈmanɔ]

Some vowel contrasts are eliminated in unstressed syllables. For example, in the urban Brescian variety,[ɔ] and[o] no longer contrast. Thus, the wordrobà ("to steal") can be pronounced both[roˈba] and[rɔˈba], with almost no difference noticed by speakers. In addition, a further variant[ruˈba] is also possible, though in this case, a difference is noticed by speakers but it is considered a local variant and no loss of intelligibility results. The sounds[e] and[ɛ] also no longer contrast in unstressed syllables, and therefore the wordvedèl ("calf") can be pronounced[veˈdɛl] or[vɛˈdɛl]. However, when affected by vowel harmony (seebelow), the unstressed sounds[e]/[ɛ],[o]/[ɔ], and[ø] become[i],[u], and[y] respectively.

In conclusion, it is possible to say that only five contrastive vowel qualities are found in unstressed syllables:[o]/[ɔ]/[(u)],[ø]/[(y)],[a],[e]/[ɛ],[i] (but with the[i] not completely separated from[e]/[ɛ]). Some examples:

• molà ("to let go, to release")[moˈla]
• mölà ("to grind")[møˈla]
• malàt ("sick, ill")[maˈlat]
• pelàt ("bald")[peˈlat]
• Milà ("Milan")[miˈla]

The situation can differ for other Eastern Lombard varieties, however, and the rules of the unstressed vowel system vary according to the area. For example, inFranciacorta, a province of Brescia, the sounds[o] and[ø] are regularly replaced by[u] and[y] in pretonic position:

• mulà instead ofmolà
• Ruàt ("Rovato") instead ofRoàt
• Üspedalèt ("Ospitaletto") instead ofÖspedalèt

Since in unstressed position these vocalic sounds are not contrastive, these local variants do not compromise reciprocal intelligibility.

Certain varieties of Eastern Lombard (mostly in Brescian area) exhibit a process of regressivevowel harmony involving the feature of vowel height.^[5] When the stress falls on a close vowel (/i/ or/u/) the preceding vowels shift their height, becoming close as well (/ɛ/ and/e/ become[i], while/ɔ/ and/o/ become[u]). The vowel/a/ is not affected by this process and acts as opaque vowel blocking the harmonization process.^[8] In Camuno, harmonization occurs almost only where the stressed vowel is an/i/ and not where it is an/u/.^[6]

This phenomenon affects all the words independent of the word's function.

Because thediminutive andaugmentative are formed with the suffixes-ì and-ù (feminine-ìna and-ùna) respectively, this process is easily observable in nouns:

• cortèl ("knife")
  • curtilì ("small knife")
  • curtilù ("big knife")

As already mentioned, the vowel/a/ acts as opaque vowel which blocks the harmonization process:

• fontàna ("fountain")
  • fontanì ("small fountain"),notfuntanì
• öspedàl ("hospital")
  • öspedalì ("small hospital"),notüspidalì

But vowels that occur after the/a/ and before the stressed vowel are still affected:

• mortadèla ("mortadella")
  • mortadilìna ("small mortadella")

In these cases variants likefuntanì andüspedalì (but notüspidalì) ormurtadilìna are accepted (or locally preferred) but fall under the normal unstressed vowel variability.

Verbs are affected by this process in their conjugation, when the inflection contains a stressed/i/ (there are no verbal suffixes containing a stressed/u/). For example:

• öler ("to want")
  • öle ("I want")
  • ülìt ("wanted", past participle)
  • ülìf ("you want", second person plural)
  • ülìef ("you wanted", second person plural imperfect indicative)

Adjectives formed with the suffix-ùs (feminine-ùza) also exhibit this rule:

• póra ("fear")
  • purús,purúza ("fearful person")

Since Eastern Lombard is still principally an oral language, a commonly accepted orthography has not been established. While in recent years there has been an increasing production of texts (mainly light comedies and poem collections), each author continues to follow their own spelling rules. The most problematic and controversial issues seem to be the representation of intervocalic/s/ and/z/ (rendered by different authors with⟨-ss-⟩,⟨-s-⟩ or⟨-z-⟩) and final/tʃ/ vs./k/ (rendered with⟨-cc⟩,⟨-c⟩ or⟨-ch⟩).

This article follows the rules of theItalian orthography, with the following exceptions.

Diacritic marks are utilized for vowel sounds to distinguish/e/ from/ɛ/ and/o/ from/ɔ/ in stressed syllables. Furthermore, theumlaut is adopted to represent the rounded vowels/ø/ and/y/:

Note thatgrave andacute accents are also used to indicate the stressed syllable in non-monosyllabic words. Since unstressed vowels are less distinctive, it is not necessary to discriminate the open/close quality.

Thedigraph⟨-cc⟩ is used at the end of the word to represent the sound/tʃ/ (in other positions this sound is rendered by means of the usual Italian orthography rules:⟨c⟩ before front vowels and⟨ci⟩ before non-front vowels).

A consonant sequence that is peculiar to Lombard is that of avoiceless alveolar fricative followed by avoiceless postalveolar affricate,[stʃ]. This article adopts the convention of representing this sound as⟨s·c⟩, although other texts may follow different traditions (so the same sequence can also be spelled⟨s'c⟩ or⟨s-c⟩ or even the ambiguous⟨sc⟩; some authors use⟨scc⟩). This sequence, which is absent in Italian, can occur at the beginning of word, as ins·cèt ("son, boy")/stʃɛt/; in the middle, as inbrös·cia ("brush")/ˈbrøstʃa/; or at the end, as ingiös·cc ("right, correct", plural)/ˈdʒøstʃ/.

The sequence/zdʒ/ is also present in Eastern Lombard and is represented in this article with the sequence of signs⟨-sgi-⟩, for example:

• bàsgia ("large bowl") =/ˈbazdʒa/
• sgionfà ("to inflate") =/zdʒonˈfa/

The grammatical system of Eastern Lombard is similar to other those of other Romance languages. Theword order isSVO (subject–verb–object) and it has a moderate inflection system: verbs are declined formood,tense andaspect and agree with their subject inperson andnumber. Nouns are classified as eithermasculine or feminine and can be marked as singular or plural. Adjectives and pronouns agree with any nouns they modify in gender and number. Eastern Lombard also prefersprepositions overcase marking.

The oldest known text written in Eastern Lombard consists of fragments of a laud known asMayor gremeza il mund no pothevela ancor aver, a manuscript found inBovegno (Trompia valley), and dating from the fourteenth century. Today, literary production has increased in volume and mainly consists in light comedies and poem collections (Angelo Canossi is an example for poetry in the Brescian dialect).

The following tale is in Brescian:

I mèrli 'na ólta i ghìa le pène biànche, ma chèl envéren lé l'éra stàt en bèl envéren e lé, la mèrla, la gà dìt: "Zenér de la màla gràpa, per tò despèt gó i uzilì 'ndela gnàta." A lü, 'l Zenér, gh'è nìt adòs 'n pó de ràbia, e 'l gà dìt: "Spèta, mèrla, che te la faró mé adès a té, e se te sét biànca mé te faró ègner négra." E pò dòpo 'l gà dit amò: "Dù ghe i ó e giü 'n prèstet el töaró e se te sét biànca, mé te faró ní négra." E alùra 'l gà fàt nì fò 'n frèt che se n'ìa mài vést giü compàgn.

Lé la mèrla la saìa piö che fà cói sò uzilì ndèla gnàta, e isé l'è nàda a rifügiàs endèla càpa del camì; dré al camì va sö 'l föm e lùr i uzilì i è déentàcc töcc négher, e quànche i è nicc fò de là, la mèrla la gh'ìa mìa piö le pène biànche, ma la ghe i éra négre. Alùra Zenér, töt sudisfàt, el gà dìt: "Tò mèrla, che te l'ó fàda mé staólta: se te se stàda biànca mé t'ó fàt ní négra e isé te làset lé de seghetà a tiràm en gìr."

[iˈmɛrlinaˈoltɔiˈɡiɔleˌpɛneˈbjaŋke|maˌkɛlɛɱˌverɛnˈlelerɔˌstatɛmˈbɛlɛɱˌverɛnɛˌle|laˈmɛrlɔ|laɡaˈditː|zeˈnerdelaˌmalɔˈɡrapɔ|ˌpertɔdeˈspɛtˌɡojuziˈliˌndelɔˈɲatɔ|aˈly|lzeˈner|ˌɡɛnitaˈdɔsemˌpodeˈrabja|ˌɛlːɡaˈdit|ˈspɛtɔ|ˌmɛrlɔ|kɛtɛlafaˌroˈmeaˌdɛsaˈte|ɛsɛtɛˌseˈbːjaŋkɔˌmetɛfaroˌɛɲɛrˈneɡrɔ|ɛpɔˈdɔpolɡaˌditaˌmɔ|ˌduɡɛˈjoɛdʒymˌprɛstetɛltøaˈroɛsɛtɛˌseˈbːjaŋkɔ|ˌmetɛfaˌroniˈneɡrɔ|ɛaˈlurɔlɡaˌfanːiˌfɔɱˈfrɛtkɛsɛˌniamaiˌvezdʒykomˈpaɲ]

[ˌlelaˈmɛrlɔlasaˌiɔpjøkeˈfakojˌsɔuziˌlindɛlɔˈɲatɔ|ɛiˈseˌlɛnadɔˌarifyˈdʒasɛnˌdɛlɔˌkapɔdɛlkaˈmi|ˌdrealkaˈmivasølˈfømɛˈlurjuziˈlijɛdeɛnˈtajˌtøjˈneɡɛr|eˌkwaŋkɛjɛˌnijfɔdeˈla|laˈmɛrlɔlaˌɡiɔmiɔˌpjøleˌpɛneˈbjaŋke|malaɡɛˌjerɔˈneɡre|aˈlurɔzeˈner|tøsːudisˈfat|elɡaˈdit|ˈtɔˌmɛrlɔ|kɛtɛloˌfadɔˈmestaˌoltɔ|sɛtɛseˌstadɔˈbjaŋkɔˌmetofaˌnːiˈneɡrɔɛiˈsetɛlasɛˈlːedɛseɡeˈtaatiˌramenˈdʒir]

Once upon a time blackbirds had white feathers, but in that time winter had been mild and a she-blackbird scorned January saying: "Bad-headed January, in spite of you I have got a brood in my nest." Hearing this, January got angry and he said: "Just wait a bit, you she-blackbird, I will fool you and I will turn you from white into black." Then he said: "I have got two, and I will borrow one,^[9] and I will turn you from white to black." And he brought forth a cold as there had never been before.

The she-blackbird did not know how to cope with her brood in the nest, so she sheltered in the hood of a chimney, and the smoke turned all the birds black; so when they came out the blackbirds did not have white feathers anymore, but black ones. And January, very happy, said: "This time it was me that fooled you, blackbird: you were white and I turned you black, this will teach you to stop teasing me."

• Bergamasque
• Cremish dialect
• Lombard languages
• Western Lombard
• Plural inflection in Eastern Lombard

• Orbilat - An interesting site more for western lombard, but the map of the distribution of the two main varieties is noteworthy.
• Poetry in Eastern Lombard from 1902 (in Italian)
• Copy of the original dictionary Bresciano - Italiano (work in progress, in Italian)
• a Casiratese-Italian vocabulary, a dictionary for the Bergamasque (Casirate d'Adda) dialect, in Italian.
• ADictionary for the Camunic variant of Eastern Lombard.
• Acollection of comedies in Bergamasque