TheKingdom of France in theearly modern period, from theRenaissance (c. 1500–1550) to theRevolution (1789–1804), was a monarchy ruled by theHouse of Bourbon (aCapetiancadet branch). This corresponds to the so-calledAncien Régime ("old rule"). The territory of France during this periodincreased until it included essentially the extent of themodern country, and it also included the territories of thefirst French colonial empire overseas.

Kingdom of France Royaume de France (French)
c. 15th century–1791 (Ancien Régime)
Top:Royal Banner[1] Bottom:Royal Standard (1643 design) Coat of arms of France & Navarre (1589–1792)
Motto:  "Montjoie Saint Denis!" (French) "Mountjoy Saint Denis!"
Anthem:  Marche Henri IV ("March of Henry IV") (1590–1792)
The Kingdom of France in the late 18th century
Capital	Paris (987–1682, 1789–1791) Versailles (1682–1789)
Common languages	Latin,French (official) Occitan,Franco-Provencal,Breton,German,Basque,Catalan,Dutch,Corsican
Religion	Roman Catholicism[2]
Demonym(s)	French
Government	Feudal monarchy (987–1648) Absolute monarchy (1648–1791)
King of France
Legislature	Estates General
Historical era	Early modern
Currency	Livre Franc Écu Louis d'or
Preceded by Succeeded by Kingdom of France Duchy of Burgundy Kingdom of France (1791–92) French First Republic

The period is dominated by the figure of the "Sun King",Louis XIV (his reign of 1643–1715 being one of thelongest in history), who managed to eliminate the remnants ofmedievalfeudalism and established acentralized state under anabsolute monarch, a system that would endure until the French Revolution andbeyond.

In the mid 15th century, France was significantly smaller than it is today,^[a] and numerous border provinces (such asRoussillon,Cerdagne,Calais,Béarn,Navarre,County of Foix,Flanders,Artois,Lorraine,Alsace,Trois-Évêchés,Franche-Comté,Savoy,Bresse,Bugey,Gex,Nice,Provence, Corsica andBrittany) were autonomous or foreign-held (as by theKingdom of England); there were also foreign enclaves, like theComtat Venaissin. In addition, certain provinces within France were ostensibly personal fiefdoms ofnoble families (like theBourbonnais,Marche,Forez andAuvergne provinces held by theHouse of Bourbon until the provinces were forcibly integrated into the royal domaine in 1527 after the fall ofCharles III, Duke of Bourbon).

The late 15th, 16th and 17th centuries would see France undergo a massive territorial expansion and an attempt to better integrate its provinces into an administrative whole. During this period, France expanded to nearly its modern territorial extent through the acquisition ofPicardy,Burgundy,Anjou,Maine,Provence,Brittany,Franche-Comté,French Flanders,Navarre,Roussillon, theDuchy of Lorraine,Alsace andCorsica.

French acquisitions from 1461 to 1789:

• UnderLouis XI –Provence (1482),Dauphiné (1461, under French control since 1349)
• UnderHenry II –Calais,Trois-Évêchés (1552)
• UnderHenry IV –County of Foix (1607)
• UnderLouis XIII –Béarn andNavarre (1620, under French control since 1589 as part ofHenry IV's possessions)
• UnderLouis XIV
  • Treaty of Westphalia (1648) –Alsace
  • Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) –Artois,Northern Catalonia (Roussillon,Cerdagne)
  • Treaty of Nijmegen (1678–79) –Franche-Comté,Flanders
• UnderLouis XV –Lorraine (1766),Corsica (1768)

Only the Duchy ofSavoy, the city ofNice and some other small papal (e.g.,Avignon) and foreign possessions would be acquired later. (For a map of historic French provinces, seeProvinces of France). France also embarked on exploration, colonisation, and mercantile exchanges with theAmericas (New France,Louisiana,Martinique,Guadeloupe,Haiti,French Guiana), India (Pondicherry), the Indian Ocean (Réunion), the Far East, and a few African trading posts.

AlthoughParis was the capital of France, the later Valois kings largely abandoned the city as their primary residence, preferring instead variouschâteaux of theLoire Valley and Parisian countryside.Henry IV made Paris his primary residence (promoting a major building boom in private mansions), butLouis XIV once again withdrew from the city in the last decades of his reign andVersailles became the primary seat of the French monarchy for much of the following century.

The administrative and legal system in France in this period is generally called theAncien Régime.

TheBlack Death had killed an estimated one-third of the population of France from its appearance in 1348. The concurrentHundred Years' War slowed recovery. It would be the early 16th century before the population recovered to mid-14th-century levels.

With an estimated population of 11 million in 1400, 20 million in the 17th century, and 28 million in 1789, until 1795 France was the most populated country in Europe (even twice the size ofBritain or theDutch Republic) and the third most populous country in the world, behind only China and India.^[4]

These demographic changes also led to a massive increase inurban populations, although on the whole France remained a profoundly rural country.Paris was one of the most populated cities in Europe (estimated at 400,000 inhabitants in 1550; 650,000 at the end of the 18th century). Other major French cities includeLyon,Rouen,Bordeaux,Toulouse, andMarseille.

These centuries saw several periods of epidemics and crop failures due to wars and climatic change. (Historians speak of the period 1550–1850 as the "Little Ice Age".) Between 1693 and 1694, France lost 6% of its population. In the extremely harsh winter of 1709, France lost 3.5% of its population. In the past 300 years, no period has been so proportionally deadly for the French, both World Wars included.^[5]

Linguistically, the differences in France were extreme. Before the Renaissance, the language spoken in the north of France was a collection of different dialects calledOïl languages whereas the written and administrative language remainedLatin. By the 16th century, there had developed a standardised form ofFrench (calledMiddle French) which would be the basis of the standardised "modern" French of the 17th and 18th century which in turn became the lingua franca of the European continent. (In 1539, with theOrdinance of Villers-Cotterêts,Francis I of France made French alone the language for legal and juridical acts.) Nevertheless, in 1790, only half of the population spoke or understood standard French.

The southern half of the country continued to speakOccitan languages (such asProvençal), and other inhabitants spokeBreton,Catalan,Basque,Dutch (West Flemish), andFranco-Provençal. In the north of France, regional dialects of the variouslangues d'oïl continued to be spoken in rural communities. During the French revolution, the teaching of French was promoted in all the schools. The French used would be that of the legal system, which differed from the French spoken in the courts of France before the revolution. Like the orators during the French revolution, the pronunciation of every syllable would become the new language.

France would not become a linguistically unified country until the end of the 19th century.

The Ancien Régime, theFrench term rendered in English as "Old Rule", "Old Kingdom", or simply "Old Regime", refers primarily to thearistocratic,social andpolitical system established in France from (roughly) the 15th century to the 18th century under thelate Valois andBourbon dynasties. The administrative and social structures of the Ancien Régime were the result of years of state-building, legislative acts (like theOrdinance of Villers-Cotterêts), internal conflicts and civil wars, but they remained a confusing patchwork of localprivilege and historic differences until theFrench Revolution took place in a radical time suppression of administrative incoherence.

ThePeace of Etaples (1492) marks, for some, the beginning of the early modern period in France.

After theHundred Years' War (1337–1453), France supported the Lancastrian side inThe Wars of the Roses. France and England signed theTreaty of Picquigny in 1475 — the official end date of the Hundred Years' War. In 1492 and 1493, after supporting the victorious House of Tudor in theBattle of Bosworth Field,Charles VIII of France signed three additional treaties withHenry VII of England,Maximilian I of Habsburg, andFerdinand II of Aragon respectively at Étaples (1492),Senlis (1493) and inBarcelona (1493). As the 15th century drew to a close, French kings could take confidence in the fact that England had been mostly driven from their territory and so they could now embark on an expansionist foreign policy. The invasion of Italy by Charles VIII in 1494 began 62 years of war with the Habsburgs (theItalian Wars).

Despite the beginnings of rapid demographic and economic recovery after theBlack Death of the 14th century, the gains of the previous half-century were to be jeopardised by a further protracted series of conflicts, theItalian Wars (1494–1559), where French efforts to gain dominance ended in the increased power of theHabsburg Holy Roman Emperors of Germany.^[6]

In 1445, the first steps were made towards fashioning a regular army out of the poorly disciplined mercenary bands that French kings traditionally relied on. The medieval division of society into "those who fought (nobility), those who prayed (clergy), and those who worked (everyone else)" still held strong and warfare was considered a domain of the nobles. Charles VIII marched into Italy with a core force consisting of noble horsemen and non-noble foot soldiers, but in time the role of the latter grew stronger so that by the middle of the 16th century, France had a standing army of 5000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry. The military was reorganized from a system of legions recruited by province (Norman legion, Gascon legion, etc.) to regiments, an arrangement which persisted into the next century. However, the nobility and troops were often disloyal to the king, if not outright rebellious, and it took another army reform by Louis XIV to finally transform the French army into an obedient force.^[7]

Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan, seeking an ally against theRepublic of Venice, encouragedCharles VIII of France to invade Italy, using theAngevin claim to the throne ofNaples, then underAragonese control, as a pretext. WhenFerdinand I of Naples died in 1494, Charles invaded the peninsula. For several months, French forces moved through Italy virtually unopposed, since thecondottieri armies of the Italiancity-states were unable to resist them. Their sack of Naples finally provoked a reaction, however, and theLeague of Venice was formed against them. Italian troops defeated the French at theBattle of Fornovo, forcing Charles to withdraw to France. Ludovico, having betrayed the French at Fornovo, retained his throne until 1499, when Charles's successor,Louis XII of France, invadedLombardy and seizedMilan.^[8]

In 1500, Louis XII, having reached an agreement withFerdinand II of Aragon to divide Naples, marched south from Milan. By 1502, combined French and Aragonese forces had seized control of the Kingdom; disagreements about the terms of the partition led to a war between Louis and Ferdinand. By 1503, Louis, having been defeated at theBattle of Cerignola andBattle of Garigliano, was forced to withdraw from Naples, which was left under the control of the Spanish viceroy,Ramón de Cardona. French forces underGaston de Foix inflicted an overwhelming defeat on a Spanish army at theBattle of Ravenna in 1512, but Foix was killed during the battle, and the French were forced to withdraw from Italy by an invasion of Milan by the Swiss, who reinstatedMaximilian Sforza to the ducal throne. TheHoly League, left victorious, fell apart over the subject of dividing the spoils, and in 1513 Venice allied with France, agreeing to partition Lombardy between them.^[9]

Louis mounted another invasion of Milan, but was defeated at theBattle of Novara, which was quickly followed by a series of Holy League victories atLa Motta,Guinegate, andFlodden, in which the French, Venetian, and Scottish forces were decisively defeated. However, the death of Pope Julius left the League without effective leadership, and when Louis' successor,Francis I, defeated the Swiss atMarignano in 1515, the League collapsed, and by the treaties of Noyon and Brussels, surrendered to France and Venice the entirety of northern Italy.

The elevation ofCharles of Spain toHoly Roman Emperor, a position that Francis had desired, led to a collapse of relations between France and the Habsburgs. In 1519, a Spanish invasion ofNavarre, nominally a French fief, provided Francis with a pretext for starting a general war; French forces flooded into Italy and began a campaign to drive Charles from Naples. The French were outmatched, however, by the fully developed Spanishtercio tactics, and suffered a series of crippling defeats atBicocca andSesia against Spanish troops underFernando d'Avalos. With Milan itself threatened, Francis personally led a French army into Lombardy in 1525, only to be defeated and captured at theBattle of Pavia; imprisoned inMadrid, Francis was forced to agree to extensive concessions over his Italian territories in the "Treaty of Madrid" (1526).

The inconclusive third war between Charles and Francis began with the death ofFrancesco II Sforza, the duke ofMilan. When Charles' sonPhilip inherited the duchy, Francis invaded Italy, capturingTurin, but failed to take Milan. In response, Charles invadedProvence, advancing toAix-en-Provence, but withdrew to Spain rather than attacking the heavily fortifiedAvignon. TheTruce of Nice ended the war, leaving Turin in French hands but effecting no significant change in the map of Italy. Francis, allying himself withSuleiman I of theOttoman Empire, launched a final invasion of Italy. A Franco-Ottoman fleet captured the city ofNice in August 1543, and laid siege to the citadel. The defenders were relieved within a month. The French, under François, Count d'Enghien, defeated an Imperial army at theBattle of Ceresole in 1544, but the French failed to penetrate further into Lombardy. Charles andHenry VIII of England then proceeded to invade northern France, seizingBoulogne andSoissons. A lack of cooperation between the Spanish and English armies, coupled with increasingly aggressive Ottoman attacks, led Charles to abandon these conquests, restoring the status quo once again.

In 1547,Henry II of France, who had succeeded Francis to the throne, declared war against Charles with the intent of recapturing Italy and ensuring French, rather than Habsburg, domination of European affairs. An early offensive againstLorraine was successful, but the attempted French invasion ofTuscany in 1553 was defeated at theBattle of Marciano. Charles's abdication in 1556 split the Habsburg empire betweenPhilip II of Spain andFerdinand I, and shifted the focus of the war toFlanders, where Philip, in conjunction withEmmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, defeated the French atSt. Quentin. England's entry into the war later that year led to the French capture ofCalais, England's last possession on the French mainland, and French armies plundered Spanish possessions in theLow Countries; but Henry was nonetheless forced to accept thePeace of Cateau-Cambrésis, in which he renounced any further claims to Italy.

Barely were the Italian Wars over, when France was plunged into a domestic crisis with far-reaching consequences. Despite the conclusion of aConcordat between France and the Papacy (1516), granting the crown unrivalled power in senior ecclesiastical appointments, France was deeply affected by theProtestant Reformation's attempt to break the unity of Roman Catholic Europe. A growing urban-based Protestant minority (later dubbedHuguenots) faced ever harsher repression under the rule of Francis I's sonKing Henry II. After Henry II's unfortunate death in a joust, the country was ruled by his widowCatherine de' Medici and her sonsFrancis II,Charles IX andHenry III. Renewed Catholic reaction headed by the powerful dukes of Guise culminated in amassacre of Huguenots (1562), starting the first of theFrench Wars of Religion, during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant and Catholic forces. Opposed to absolute monarchy, the HuguenotsMonarchomachs theorized during this time theright of rebellion and the legitimacy oftyrannicide.^[10]

The Wars of Religion culminated in theWar of the Three Henrys in whichHenry III assassinatedHenry de Guise, leader of the Spanish-backedCatholic league, and the king was murdered in return. After the assassination of both Henry of Guise (1588) and Henry III (1589), the conflict was ended by the accession of the Protestant king of Navarre asHenry IV (first king of the Bourbon dynasty) and his subsequent abandonment of Protestantism (Expedient of 1592) effective in 1593, his acceptance by most of the Catholic establishment (1594) and by the Pope (1595), and his issue of the toleration decree known as theEdict of Nantes (1598), which guaranteed freedom of private worship and civil equality.

France's pacification underHenry IV laid much of the ground for the beginnings of France's rise to European hegemony. One of the most admired French kings, Henry was fatally stabbed by a Catholic fanatic in 1610 as war with Spain threatened. Troubles gradually developed during the regency headed by his queenMarie de Medici. France was expansive during all but the end of the 17th century: the French began trading inIndia andMadagascar, foundedQuebec and penetrated the North AmericanGreat Lakes andMississippi, established plantation economies in theWest Indies and extended their trade contacts in theLevant and enlarged theirmerchant marine.^[11]

Henry IV's sonLouis XIII and his minister (1624–1642)Cardinal Richelieu, elaborated a policy againstSpain and the German emperor during theThirty Years' War (1618–1648) which had broken out among the lands of Germany's Holy Roman Empire. An English-backed Huguenot rebellion (1625–1628) defeated, France intervened directly (1635) in the wider European conflict following her ally (Protestant)Sweden's failure to build upon initial success.

After the death of both king and cardinal, thePeace of Westphalia (1648) secured universal acceptance of Germany's political and religious fragmentation, but the Regency ofAnne of Austria and her ministerCardinal Mazarin experienced a civil uprising known as theFronde (1648–1653) which expanded into aFranco-Spanish War (1653–1659). TheTreaty of the Pyrenees (1659) formalised France's seizure (1642) of the Spanish territory ofRoussillon after the crushing of the ephemeral Catalan Republic and ushered a short period of peace.

For most of the reign ofLouis XIV (1643–1715), France was the dominant power in Europe, aided by the diplomacy of Richelieu's successor (1642–1661) CardinalMazarin and the economic policies (1661–1683) ofColbert. Colbert's attempts to promote economic growth and the creation of new industries were not a great success, and France did not undergo any sort of industrial revolution during Louis XIV's reign. Indeed, much of the French countryside during this period remained poor and overpopulated. The resistance of peasants to adopt the potato, according to some monarchist apologists, and other new agricultural innovations while continuing to rely on cereal crops led to repeated catastrophic famines long after they had ceased in the rest of Western Europe. Prior to Louis XIV's reign, French soldiers frequently went into battle barefoot and with no weapons. On the other hand, France's high birthrate until the 18th century proved beneficial to its rulers since it meant the country could field larger armies than its neighbors. In fact, the king's foreign policy, as well as his lavish court and construction projects, left the country in enormous debt. ThePalace of Versailles was criticized as overly extravagant even while it was still under construction, but dozens of imitations were built across Europe. Renewed war (theWar of Devolution 1667–1668 and theFranco-Dutch War 1672–1678) brought further territorial gains (Artois and westernFlanders and the freecounty of Burgundy, left to the Empire in 1482), but at the cost of the increasingly concerted opposition of rival powers.^[12]

French culture was part of French hegemony. In the early part of the century French painters had to go to Rome to shed their provinciality (Nicolas Poussin,Claude Lorrain), butSimon Vouet brought home the taste for a classicized baroque that would characterise theFrench Baroque, epitomised in theAcadémie de peinture et de sculpture, in the painting ofCharles Le Brun and the sculpture ofFrançois Girardon. With thePalais du Luxembourg, theChâteau de Maisons andVaux-le-Vicomte, French classical architecture was admired abroad even before the creation ofVersailles or Perrault's Louvre colonnade.Parisian salon culture set standards of discriminating taste from the 1630s, and withPascal,Descartes,Bayle,Corneille,Racine andMolière, France became the cultural center of Europe. In an effort to prevent the nobility from revolting and challenging his authority, Louis implemented an extremely elaborate system of court etiquette with the idea that learning it would occupy most of the nobles' time and they could not plan rebellion. By the start of the 18th century, the nobility in France had been effectively neutered and would never again have more power than the crown. Also, Louis willingly granted titles of nobility to those who had performed distinguished service to the state so that it did not become a closed caste and it was possible for commoners to rise through the social ranks. The king sought to impose total religious uniformity on the country, repealing the Edict of Nantes in 1685. The infamous practice ofdragonnades was adopted, whereby rough soldiers were quartered in the homes of Protestant families and allowed to have their way with them. Scores of Protestants fled France, costing the country a great many intellectuals, artisans, and other valuable people. Persecution extended to unorthodox Catholics like theJansenists, a group that denied free will and had already been condemned by the popes. Louis was no theologian and understood little of the complex doctrines of Jansenism, satisfying himself with the fact that they threatened the unity of the state. In this, he garnered the friendship of the papacy, which had previously been hostile to France because of its policy of putting all church property in the country under the jurisdiction of the state rather than of Rome.

Cardinal Mazarin oversaw the creation of a French navy that rivaled England's, expanding it from 25 ships to almost 200. The size of the army was also considerably increased.

Starting in the 1670s, Louis XIV established the so-calledChambers of Reunion, courts in which judges would determine whether certain Habsburg territories belonged rightfully to France. The king was relying on the somewhat vague wording in the Treaty of Westphalia, while also dredging up older French claims, some dating back to medieval times. Through this, he concluded that the strategically important imperial city ofStrassburg should have gone to France in 1648. In September 1681, French troops occupied the city, which was at once strongly fortified. As the imperial armies were then busy fighting the Ottoman Empire, they could not do anything about this for a number of years. The basic aim of Louis' foreign policy was to give France more easily defensible borders, and to eliminate weak spots (Strassburg had often been used by the Habsburgs as a gateway into France).

Following the Whig establishment on the English and Scottish thrones by the Dutch princeWilliam of Orange in 1688, the anti-French "Grand Alliance" of 1689 was established. With the Turks now in retreat, the emperorLeopold could turn his attention to France. The ensuingWar of the Grand Alliance lasted from 1688 to 1697. France's resources were stretched to the breaking point by the cost of fielding an army of over 300,000 men and two naval squadrons. Famine in 1692–1693 killed up to two million people. The exhaustion of the powers brought the fighting to an end in 1697, by which time the French were in control of the Spanish Netherlands and Catalonia. However, Louis gave back his conquests and gained onlyHaiti. The French people, feeling that their sacrifices in the war had been for nothing, never forgave him.

TheBattle of La Hougue (1692) was the decisive naval battle in the war and confirmed the durable dominance of theRoyal Navy of England.

In November 1700, the severely ill Spanish kingCharles II died, ending the Habsburg line in that country. Louis had long waited for this moment, and now planned to put a Bourbon relative, Philip, Duke of Anjou, on the throne. Essentially, Spain was to become an obedient satellite of France, ruled by a king who would carry out orders from Versailles. Realizing how this would upset the balance of power, the other European rulers were outraged. However, most of the alternatives were equally undesirable. For example, putting another Habsburg on the throne would end up recreating the empire of Charles V, which would also grossly upset the power balance. After nine years of exhausting war, the last thing Louis wanted was another conflict. However, the rest of Europe would not stand for his ambitions in Spain, and so theWar of the Spanish Succession began, a mere three years after the War of the Grand Alliance.^[13]

The disasters of the war (accompanied by another famine) were so great that France was on the verge of collapse by 1709. In desperation, the king appealed to the French people to save their country, and in doing so gained thousands of new army recruits. Afterwards, his generalMarshal Villars managed to drive back the allied forces. In 1714, the war ended with the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt. France did not lose any territory, and there was no discussion of returning Flanders or Alsace to the Habsburgs. While the Duke of Anjou was accepted as KingPhilip V of Spain, this was done under the condition that the French and Spanish thrones never be united. Finally, France agreed to stop supporting Jacobite pretenders to the English throne. Just after the war ended, Louis died, having ruled France for 72 years.

While often considered a tyrant and a warmonger (especially in England), Louis XIV was not in any way a despot in the 20th-century sense. The traditional customs and institutions of France limited his power and in any case, communications were poor and no national police force existed.

Overall, the discontent and revolts of 16th- and 17th-century France did not approach the conditions that led to 1789. Events such as the Frondes were a naïve, unrevolutionary discontent and the people did not challenge the right of the king to govern nor did they question the Church.

The reign (1715–1774) ofLouis XV saw an initial return to peace and prosperity under the regency (1715–1723) ofPhilip II, Duke of Orléans, whose policies were largely continued (1726–1743) byCardinal Fleury, prime minister in all but name. The exhaustion of Europe after two major wars resulted in a long period of peace, only interrupted by minor conflicts like theWar of the Polish Succession from 1733 to 1735. Large-scale warfare resumed with theWar of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). But alliance with the traditional Habsburg enemy (the "Diplomatic Revolution" of 1756) against the rising power of Britain andPrussia led to costly failure in theSeven Years' War (1756–1763) and the loss of France's North American colonies.^[14]

On the whole, the 18th century saw growing discontent with the monarchy and the established order. Louis XV was a highly unpopular king for his sexual excesses, overall weakness, and for losing Canada to the British. A strong ruler like Louis XIV could enhance the position of the monarchy, while Louis XV weakened it. The writings of the philosophers such asVoltaire were a clear sign of discontent, but the king chose to ignore them. He died ofsmallpox in 1774, and the French people shed few tears at his passing. While France had not yet experienced the industrial revolution that was beginning in England, the rising middle class of the cities felt increasingly frustrated with a system and rulers that seemed silly, frivolous, aloof, and antiquated, even if true feudalism no longer existed in France.

Anti-establishment ideas fermented in 18th-century France in part due to the country's relative egalitarianism. While less liberal than England during the same period, the French monarchy never approached the absolutism of the eastern rulers in Vienna, Berlin, St. Petersburg, and Constantinople in part because the country's traditional development as a decentralized, feudal society acted as a restraint on the power of the king. Different social classes in France each had their own unique set of privileges so that no one class could completely dominate the others.

Upon Louis XV's death, his grandsonLouis XVI became king. Initially popular, he too came to be widely detested by the 1780s. Again a weak ruler, he was married to an Austrian archduchess,Marie Antoinette, whose naïvety and cloistered/alienated Versailles life permitted ignorance of the true extravagance and wasteful use of borrowed money (Marie Antoinette was significantly more frugal than her predecessors). French intervention in the US War of Independence was also very expensive.

With the country deeply in debt,Louis XVI permitted the radical reforms ofTurgot andMalesherbes, but noble disaffection led to Turgot's dismissal and Malesherbes' resignation in 1776. They were replaced byJacques Necker. Necker had resigned in 1781 to be replaced byCalonne andBrienne, before being restored in 1788. A harsh winter that year led to widespread food shortages, and by then France was a powder keg ready to explode.

On the eve of theFrench Revolution of 1789, France was in a profound institutional and financial crisis, but the ideas ofthe Enlightenment had begun to permeate the educated classes of society.

On 1792 September 21 the Frenchmonarchy was effectively abolished by the proclamation of theFrench First Republic.

Valois (1328–1498)

• Louis XI
• Charles VIII

After Charles VIII the Affable, the last king in thedirect Valois line, three other branches of theHouse of Capet reigned in France until the fall of theAncien Régime in 1792:

Valois-Orléans (1498–1515)

• Louis XII

Valois-Angoulême (1515–1589)

• Francis I
• Henry II andCatherine de' Medici
• Francis II
• Charles IX
• Henry III

House of Bourbon (1589–1792)

• Henry IV
• the Regency ofMarie de Medici
• Louis XIII and his ministerCardinal Richelieu
• the Regency ofAnne of Austria and her ministerCardinal Mazarin
• Louis XIV
• theRégence ofPhilip II of Orleans
• Louis XV
• Louis XVI

France in the Ancien Régime covered a territory of around 200,000 square miles (520,000 km²), and supported 22 million people in 1700. At least 96% of the population were peasants. France had the largest population in Europe, with European Russia second at 20 million. Britain had nearly six million, Spain had eight million, and the Austrian Habsburgs had around eight million. France's lead slowly faded after 1700, as other countries grew faster.^[15][16]

In the 17th century rich peasants who had ties to the market economy provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town).Geographic mobility, directly tied to the market and the need for investment capital, was the main path to social mobility. The "stable" core of French society, town guilds people and village laboureurs, included cases of staggering social and geographic continuity, but even this core required regular renewal. Accepting the existence of these two societies, the constant tension between them, and extensive geographic and social mobility tied to a market economy holds the key to a clearer understanding of the evolution of the social structure, economy, and even political system of early modern France. Collins (1991) argues that theAnnales School paradigm underestimated the role of the market economy; failed to explain the nature of capital investment in the rural economy; and grossly exaggerated social stability.^[17]

Very few women held any power—some queens did, as did the heads of Catholic convents. In theEnlightenment, the writings of philosopherJean-Jacques Rousseau gave a political program for reform of the Ancien Régime, founded on a reform of domestic mores. Rousseau's conception of the relations between private and public spheres is more unified than that found in modern sociology. Rousseau argued that the domestic role of women is a structural precondition for a "modern" society.^[18] Within early modern society, women of urban artisanal classes participated in a range of public activities and also shared work settings with men (even though they were generally disadvantaged in terms of tasks, wages and access to property.)^[19]Salic law prohibited women from rule; however, the laws for the case of a regency, when the king was too young to govern by himself, brought the queen into the center of power. The queen could assure the passage of power from one king to another—from her late husband to her young son—while simultaneously assuring the continuity of the dynasty.

Educational aspirations were on the rise and were becoming increasingly institutionalized in order to supply the church and state with the functionaries to serve as their future administrators. Girls were schooled too, but not to assume political responsibility. Girls were ineligible for leadership positions and were generally considered to have an inferior intellect to their brothers. France had many small local schools where working-class children—both boys and girls—learned to read, the better "to know, love and serve God". The sons and daughters of the noble and bourgeois elites, however, were given quite distinct educations: boys were sent to upper school, perhaps a university, while their sisters (if they were lucky enough to leave the house) were sent for finishing at a convent. TheEnlightenment challenged this model, but no real alternative presented itself for female education. Only through education at home were knowledgeable women formed, usually to the sole end of dazzling their salons.^[20]

A large proportion of children lived in broken homes or in blended families and had to cope with the presence of half-siblings and stepsiblings in the same residence. Brothers and sisters were often separated during the guardianship period and some of them were raised in different places for most of their childhood. Half-siblings and stepsiblings lived together for rather short periods of time because of their difference in age, their birth rank, or their gender. The lives of the children were closely linked to the administration of their heritage: when both their mothers and fathers were dead, another relative took charge of the guardianship and often removed the children from a stepparent's home, thus separating half-siblings.^[21]

The experience of step-motherhood was surrounded by negative stereotypes; theCinderella story and many other jokes and stories made the second wife an object of ridicule. Language, theater, popular sayings, the position of the Church, and the writings of jurists all made stepmother a difficult identity to take up. However, the importance of male remarriage suggests that reconstitution of family units was a necessity and that individuals resisted negative perceptions circulating through their communities. Widowers did not hesitate to take a second wife, and they usually found quite soon a partner willing to become a stepmother. For these women, being a stepmother was not necessarily the experience of a lifetime or what defined their identity. Their experience depended greatly on factors such as the length of the union, changing family configuration, and financial dispositions taken by their husbands.^[22]

By a policy adopted at the beginning of the 16th century, adulterous women during the ancien régime were sentenced to a lifetime in a convent unless pardoned by their husbands and were rarely allowed to remarry even if widowed.

Prior to theFrench Revolution, theCatholic Church was the officialstate religion of the Kingdom of France.^[23] France was traditionally considered the Church's eldest daughter (French:Fille aînée de l'Église), and theKing of France always maintained close links to the Pope.^[24] However, the French monarchy maintained a significant degree of autonomy, namely through its policy of "Gallicanism", whereby the king selected bishops rather than the papacy.^[25]

During the Protestant Reformation of the mid 16th century, France developed a large and influential Protestant population, primarily ofReformed confession; after French theologian and pastorJohn Calvin introduced theReformation in France, the number ofFrench Protestants (Huguenots) steadily swelled to 10 percent of the population, or roughly 1.8 million people. The ensuringFrench Wars of Religion, and particularly theSt. Bartholomew's Day massacre, decimated the Huguenot community;^[26][27] Protestants declined to seven to eight percent of the kingdom's population by the end of the 16th century. TheEdict of Nantes brought decades of respite until itsrevocation in the late 17th century byLouis XIV. The resulting exodus ofHuguenots from the Kingdom of France created abrain drain, as many of them had occupied important places in society.^[28]

• Age of Discovery
• French colonization of the Americas
• French colonial empires

• French Renaissance literature
• French literature of the 17th century
• French literature of the 18th century

• French Renaissance
• French Baroque and Classicism
• French Rococo and Neoclassicism

• French Enlightenment
• Paris in the 17th century
• Paris in the 18th century

• French Pamphlet collection documents significant events and periods in French history throughout the 17th–20th centuries, at theUniversity of Maryland Libraries