Competition is arivalry where two or more parties strive for a commongoal which cannot be shared: where one's gain is the other's loss (an example of which is azero-sum game).^[1] Competition can arise between entities such as organisms, individuals, economic and social groups, etc. The rivalry can be over attainment of any exclusive goal, includingrecognition.

Competition occurs in nature, between living organisms which co-exist in the sameenvironment. Animals compete over water supplies, food, mates, and otherbiological resources.Humans usuallycompete for food and mates, though when these needs are met deep rivalries often arise over the pursuit ofwealth, power, prestige, andfame when in a static, repetitive, or unchanging environment.^[2] Competition is a major tenet ofmarket economies and business, often associated with business competition as companies are in competition with at least one other firm over the same group of customers. Competition inside a company is usually stimulated with the larger purpose of meeting and reaching higher quality of services or improved products that the company may produce or develop.

Competition is often considered to be the opposite ofcooperation; however, in the real world, mixtures of cooperation and competition are the norm.^[3] In economies, as the philosopher R. G. Collingwood argued "the presence of these two opposites together is essential to an economic system. The parties to an economic action co-operate in competing, like two chess players".^[4] Optimal strategies to achieve goals are studied in the branch of mathematics known asgame theory.

Competition has been studied in several fields, includingpsychology,sociology andanthropology. Socialpsychologists, for instance, study the nature of competition. They investigate the natural urge of competition and its circumstances. They also studygroup dynamics, to detect how competition emerges and what its effects are.Sociologists, meanwhile, study the effects of competition on society as a whole. Additionally,anthropologists study thehistory and prehistory of competition in various cultures. They also investigate how competition manifested itself in variouscultural settings in the past, and how competition has developed over time.

Competition within, between, and among species is one of the most important forces in biology, especially in the field ofecology.^[5]

Competition between members of a species ("intraspecific") for resources such asfood,water,territory, andsunlight may result in an increase in the frequency of a variant of the species best suited for survival and reproduction until its fixation within a population. However, competition among resources also has a strong tendency for diversification between members of the same species, resulting in coexistence of competitive and non-competitive strategies or cycles between low and high competitiveness. Third parties within a species often favour highly competitive strategies leading to species extinction when environmental conditions are harsh (evolutionary suicide).^[6]

Competition is also present between species ("interspecific"). When resources are limited, several species may depend on these resources. Thus, each of the species competes with the others to gain access to the resources. As a result, species less suited to compete for the resources maydie out unless theyadapt by character dislocation, for instance. According toevolutionary theory, this competition within and between species for resources plays a significant role innatural selection. At shorter time scales, competition is also one of the most important factors controlling diversity in ecological communities, but at larger scales expansion and contraction of ecological space is a much larger factor than competition.^[7] This is illustrated by living plant communities where asymmetric competition and competitive dominance frequently occur.^[5] Multiple examples of symmetric and asymmetric competition also exist for animals.^[8]

In Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, competitions or lotto are the equivalent of what are commonly known assweepstakes in the United States. The correct technical name for Australian consumer competitions is a trade promotion lottery or lotto.^[9]

People that enjoy entering competitions are known as compers.^[10][11]

Manyphilosophers andpsychologists have identified a trait in most living organisms which can drive the particular organism to compete. This trait, called competitiveness, is viewed as having a highadaptive value, which coexists along with the urge for survival.^[2] Competitiveness, or the inclination to compete, though, has become synonymous with aggressiveness and ambition in theEnglish language. More advancedcivilizations integrate aggressiveness and competitiveness into theirinteractions, as a way to distribute resources and adapt. Many plants compete with neighboring ones for sunlight.

The term also applies toeconometrics. Here, it is a comparative measure of the ability and performance of a firm or sub-sector to sell and produce/supply goods and/or services in a given market. The two academic bodies of thought on the assessment of competitiveness are theStructure Conduct Performance Paradigm and the more contemporaryNew Empirical Industrial Organisation model. Predicting changes in the competitiveness of business sectors is becoming an integral and explicit step in public policymaking. Within capitalist economic systems, the drive of enterprises is to maintain and improve their own competitiveness.

One-upmanship, also called "one-upsmanship",^[12] is the art or practice of successively outdoing acompetitor. The term was first used in the title of a book byStephen Potter, published in 1952^[13] as a follow-up toThe Theory and Practice ofGamesmanship (or the Art of Winning Games without Actually Cheating) (1947). OtherLifemanship titles in his series oftongue-in-cheekself-help books, as well as film and television derivatives, teach various ploys to achieve this. This comicsatire ofself-help style guides manipulates traditional British conventions for the gamester. The principle being all life being a game, who understands thatif you're not one-up, you're one-down. Potter's unprincipled principles apply to almost any possession, experience or situation, deriving maximum undeserved rewards and discomfitting the opposition. The 1960 filmSchool for Scoundrels and its2006 remake were satiric portrayals of how to use Potter's ideas.^{[citation needed]}

In that context, the term refers to a satiric course in thegambits required for the systematic and conscious practice of "creative intimidation", making one's associates feel inferior and thereby gaining the status of being "one-up" on them. Viewed seriously, it is a phenomenon ofgroup dynamics that can have significant effects in themanagement field: for instance, manifesting inoffice politics.^[14]

Social competition is the competition forsocial status orsocial power, examples includekeeping up with the Joneses,female intrasexual competition ormale intrasexual competition. Social competition can contribute tosocial stress.^[15]

Competition is a major factor in education. On a global scale, national education systems, intending to bring out the best in the next generation, encourage competitiveness among students throughscholarships. Countries such as England and Singapore havespecial education programmes which cater for specialist students, prompting charges ofacademic elitism. Upon receipt of their academic results, students tend to compare their grades to see who is better. In severe cases, the pressure to perform in some countries is so high that it can result in stigmatization of intellectually deficient students, or even suicide as a consequence of failing the exams. Critics of competition as a motivating factor in education systems, such asAlfie Kohn, assert that competition actually has a net negative influence on the achievement levels of students, and that it "turns all of us into losers".^[16] EconomistRichard Layard has commented on the harmful effects, stating "people feel that they are under a great deal of pressure. They feel that their main objective in life is to do better than other people. That is certainly what young people are being taught in school every day. And it's not a good basis for a society."^[17]

However, other studies such as theTorrance Tests of Creative Thinking show that the effect of competition on students depends on each individual's level ofagency. Students with a high level of agency thrive on competition, are self-motivated, and are willing to risk failure. Compared to their counterparts who are low in agency, these students are more likely to be flexible, adaptable and creative as adults.^[18][19]

Merriam-Webster gives as one definition of competition (relating tobusiness) as "[...] rivalry: such as [...] the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most favorable terms".^[20]Adam Smith in his 1776 bookThe Wealth of Nations and later economists described competition in general as allocating productiveresources to their most highly valued uses and encouragingefficiency.^{[21][need quotation to verify]} Latermicroeconomic theory distinguished betweenperfect competition andimperfect competition, concluding that no system of resource allocation is more efficient thanperfect competition.^{[citation needed]} Competition, according to the theory, causes commercial firms to develop new products, services and technologies, which would give consumers greater selection and better products. The greater selection typically causes lower prices for the products, compared to what the price would be if there was no competition (monopoly) or little competition (oligopoly).^{[citation needed]}

However, competition may also lead to wasted (duplicated) effort and to increasedcosts (and prices) in some circumstances. For example, the intense competition for the small number oftop jobs in music and movie-acting leads many aspiring musicians and actors to make substantial investments in training which are not recouped, because only a fraction become successful. Critics^[which?] have also argued that competition can be destabilizing, particularly competition between certain financial institutions.

Experts have also questioned the constructiveness of competition in profitability. It has been argued that competition-oriented objectives are counterproductive to raising revenues and profitability because they limit the options of strategies for firms as well as their ability to offer innovative responses to changes in the market.^[22] In addition, the strong desire to defeat rival firms with competitive prices has the strong possibility of causingprice wars.^[23]

Another distinction appearing in economics is that between competition as an end-state – as in the case of both perfect and imperfect competition – and competition as aprocess. It is a process of rivalry between firms (or consumers) intensifying selective pressures for improvements. One can restate this as a process of discovery.^[24]

Three levels of end-state economic competition have been classified:^{[by whom?]}

• The most narrow form isdirect competition (also called "category competition" or "brand competition"), whereproducts which perform the same function compete against each other. For example, one brand of pick-up trucks competes with several other brands of pick-up trucks. Sometimes, two companies are rivals and one adds new products to their line, which leads to the other company distributing the same new things, and in this manner they compete.
• The next form issubstitute orindirect competition, where products which are close substitutes for one another compete. For example, butter competes with margarine, with mayonnaise and with other various sauces and spreads.
• The broadest form of competition is typically calledbudget competition. Included in this category is anything on which theconsumer might want to spend their availablemoney. For example, a family which has $20,000 available may choose to spend it on many different items, which can all be seen as competing with each other for the family's expenditure. This form of competition is also sometimes described as a competition of "share of wallet".

In addition, companies compete forfinancing on the capital markets (equity or debt) in order to generate the necessary cash for their operations.Investor typically consider alternative investment opportunities given their risk profile, and not only look at companies just competing on product (direct competitors). Enlarging the investment universe to includeindirect competitors leads to a broader peer universe of comparable, indirectly competing companies.

Competition does not necessarily have to be between companies. For example,business writers sometimes refer tointernal competition. This is competition within companies. The idea was first introduced byAlfred Sloan atGeneral Motors in the 1920s. Sloan deliberately created areas of overlap betweendivisions of the company so that each division would compete with the other divisions. For example, theChevrolet division would compete with thePontiac division for somemarket segments. The competing brands by the same company allowed parts to be designed by one division and shared by several divisions, for example parts designed by Chevrolet would also be used by Pontiac. In 1931Procter & Gamble initiated a deliberate system of internal brand-versus-brand rivalry. The company was organized^{[by whom?]} around differentbrands, with each brand allocated resources, including a dedicated group of employees willing to champion the brand. Eachbrand manager was given responsibility for the success or failure of the brand, and compensated accordingly.

Most businesses also encourage competition between individual employees. An example of this is a contest between sales representatives. The sales representative with the highest sales (or the best improvement in sales) over a period of time would gain benefits from the employer. This is also known asintra-brand competition.

Shalev and Asbjornsen found that success (i.e. the saving resulted) ofreverse auctions correlated most closely with competition. The literature widely supported the importance of competition as the primary driver of reverse auctions success.^[25] Their findings appear to support that argument, as competition correlated strongly with the reverse auction success, as well as with the number of bidders.^[25]

Business and economic competition in mostcountries is often^[quantify] limited or restricted. Competition often is subject to legal restrictions. For example, competition may be legally prohibited, as in the cases of agovernment monopoly or of agovernment-granted monopoly. Governments may institutetariffs,subsidies or otherprotectionist measures in order to prevent or reduce competition. Depending on the respective economic policy, pure competition is to a greater or lesser extent regulated bycompetition policy andcompetition law. Another component of these activities is thediscovery process, with instances of highergovernment regulations typically leading to less competitive businesses being launched.^[26]

Nicholas Gruen has referred toThe Competition Delusion,^[27] in which competition is taken to be unambiguously good, even where that competition leaks into the rules of the game. He claims this drives financialisation (the approximate doubling of proportion of economic resources dedicated to finance and to 'rule making and administering' professions such as law, accountancy and auditing.

Competitionlaw, known in theUnited States as antitrust law, has three main functions:

• First, it prohibits agreements aimed to restrict free trading between business entities and their customers. For example, acartel of sports shops who together fix football-jersey prices higher than normal is illegal.^[28]
• Second, competition law can ban the existence or abusive behaviour of a firm dominating the market. One case in point could be a software company who through itsmonopoly on computer platforms makes consumers use its media player.^[29]
• Third, to preserve competitive markets, the law supervises themergers and acquisitions of very large corporations. Competition authorities could for instance require that a large packaging company give plastic bottlelicenses to competitors before taking over a majorPET producer.^[30]

In all three cases, competition law aims to protect thewelfare of consumers by ensuring that each business must compete for its share of themarket economy.^{[citation needed]}

Game theory is "the study ofmathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers."^[31] Game theory is mainly used ineconomics,political science, andpsychology, as well aslogic,computer science,biology andpoker.^[32] Originally, it mainly addressedzero-sum games, in which one person's gains result in losses for the other participants.

Game theory is a major method used inmathematical economics and business formodeling competing behaviors of interactingagents.^[33] Applications include a wide array of economic phenomena and approaches, such asauctions,bargaining,mergers & acquisitions pricing,^[34]fair division,duopolies,oligopolies,social network formation,agent-based computational economics,^[35]general equilibrium,mechanism design,^[36] andvoting systems;^[37] and across such broad areas asexperimental economics,^[38]behavioral economics,^[39]information economics,^[40]industrial organization,^[41] andpolitical economy.^[42][43]

This research usually focuses on particular sets of strategies known as"solution concepts" or "equilibria". A common assumption is that players act rationally. In non-cooperative games, the most famous of these is theNash equilibrium. A set of strategies is a Nash equilibrium if each represents a best response to the other strategies. If all the players are playing the strategies in a Nash equilibrium, they have no unilateral incentive to deviate, since their strategy is the best they can do given what others are doing.^[44][45]

Margaret Heffernan's study,A Bigger Prize,^[46]examines the perils and disadvantages of competition in (for example) biology, families, sport, education, commerce and the Soviet Union.^[47]

Karl Marx insisted that "the capitalist system fosters competition and egoism in all its members and thoroughly undermines all genuine forms of community".^[48]It promotes a "climate of competitive egoism and individualism", with competition for jobs and competition between employees; Marx said competition between workers exceeds that demonstrated by company owners.^[49] He also points out that competition separates individuals from one another and while concentration of workers and development of better communication alleviate this, they are not a decision.^[49]

Gandhi speaks of egoistic competition.^[50] For him, such qualities glorified and/or left unbridled, can lead to violence, conflict, discord and destructiveness. For Gandhi, competition comes from the ego, and therefore society must be based on mutual love, cooperation and sacrifice for the well-being of humanity.^[50] In the society desired by Gandhi, each individual will cooperate and serve for the welfare of others and people will share each other's joys, sorrows and achievements as a norm of a social life. For him, in a non-violent society, competition does not have a place and this should become realized with more people making the personal choice to have fewer tendencies toward egoism and selfishness.^[50]

Competition is also found intrade. For nations, as well as firms it is important to understand trade dynamics in order to market their goods and services effectively in international markets.Balance of trade can be considered a crude, but widely used proxy for international competitiveness across levels:country,industry or evenfirm. "We share a common belief that innovation comes from the edges," said Luisa Delgado, an SAP HR director, who noted the company valued the ability of many autistic people to "think differently and spark innovation." SAP’s Bangalore office saw its productivity increase after deploying autistic hires. The company is working closely with a Danish not-for-profit specializing in IT job placements for individuals with autism spectrum disorders."^[51] Research data hints that exporting firms have a higher survival rate and achieve greater employment growth compared with non-exporters.

Using a simple concept to measure heights that firms can climb may help improve execution of strategies. International competitiveness can be measured on several criteria but few are as flexible and versatile to be applied across levels as Trade Competitiveness Index (TCI)^[52]

The tendency toward extreme, unhealthy competition has been termedhypercompetitiveness. This concept originated inKaren Horney's theories onneurosis; specifically, the highly aggressive personality type which is characterized as "moving against people". In her view, some people have a need to compete and win at all costs as a means of maintaining theirself-worth. These individuals are likely to turn any activity into a competition, and they will feel threatened if they find themselves losing. Researchers have found that men and women who score high on the trait of hypercompetitiveness are morenarcissistic and less psychologically healthy than those who score low on the trait.^[53] Hypercompetitive individuals generally believe that winning is the only thing that matters.^[54]

• Arms race
• Asymmetric competition
• Competition regulator
• Competitor analysis
• Cooperation
• Ecological model of competition
• Monopolistic competition
• Non-zero-sum game
• Prisoner's dilemma
• Student competitions
• Win-win game
• Zero-sum

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