Christian views on environmentalism vary greatly amongst differentChristians andChristian denominations.
Green Christianity is a broad field that encompasses Christian theological reflection onnature,liturgy, and spiritual practices centered onenvironmental issues, as well as Christian-based activism in theenvironmental movement. Within the activism arena, green Christianity refers to a diverse group ofChristians who emphasize thebiblical ortheological basis for protecting, celebrating and partnering with the environment. The term indicates not a particulardenomination but a shared territory of concern.
In the 21st century, and in response to the crises of nature and climate, many major Christian denominations recognise the Biblical calling for responsible—even sacrificial—care of, and partnership with the rest of God's Creation, primarily interpreted as referring to life on Earth. Some branches of Christianity have become environmentally aware relatively recently and such ideas may not be followed by all members andparishioners. According to somesocial science research, conservative Christians and members of theChristian right are typically less concerned about issues ofenvironmentalism than the general public, and some fundamentalist Christians deny global warming and climate change.[1][2][3]
The Christianliturgical calendar honors September 1 as theFeast of Creation and the subsequent time until October 4 asCreationtide.[4][5]
The status of nature in Christianity has been hotly debated, primarily sinceLynn Townsend White Jr. delivered a lecture on the subject to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1966, which was subsequently published in the journalScience. In the article, White places blame for the modernecological crisis on Christian beliefs perpetuated from the Middle Ages. His conclusion is primarily due to the dominance of the Christian worldview in the West, which is exploitative of nature in an unsustainable manner.[6] He asserts thatJudeo-Christians are anti-ecological, hostile towards nature, and imposed a division between humans and soul with an attitude to exploit nature in an unsustainable way, where people thought of themselves as separate from nature. This exploitative attitude, combined with technology in theindustrial revolution, wreaked havoc on the ecology. Colonial forestry is a prime example of this destruction of ecology and native faiths.[7] White concluded thatWestern Christianity bears a substantial "burden of guilt" for the contemporary environmental crisis.
The many nationally-basedgrassroots movements of green or eco-Christians, such as Eco-Church[8] [England & Wales] EcoCongregation Scotland,[9] and various organisations inmainland Europe and theglobal north would find themselves at odds with such a negative approach, preferring to see in the traditions and scriptures of mainstream Christianity a resource for discernment and spiritual resilience. The 'rule' of humanity, historically taken to justify domination, is then interpreted after the model of Jesus 'servant leadership', of a 'good shepherd' who lays down their life for the sheep [Matthew 20]. Attention to the semantic marginalisation of creation in 20th century translations leads in practice to activism based on faith, rather than Christians finding themselves constrained or limited by Enlightenment or colonial views of human relation to fellow creatures.
Christianity has a long historical tradition of reflection on nature and human responsibility, while historically having a strong tendency towardanthropocentrism. It should be said that the spirituality of Christians in indigenous cultures sees creation without this polarisation of human and other creatures. While some Christians favor a morebiocentric approach,Catholic officials and others seek to retain an emphasis on humanity while incorporating environmental concerns within a framework of Creation Care. Christian environmentalists emphasize the ecological responsibilities of all Christians as partners and guardians of all life on God's earth.
Beginning with the verseGenesis1:26–28, God instructs humanity to manage the creation in particular ways.
"And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth."[10]
Adam's early purpose was to give care to theGarden of Eden:
"And the LORD God took the man, and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it." (Genesis 2:15)
Green Christians point out that the biblical emphasis is onsafeguarding, notownership – that the earth remains the Lord's (Psalms 24:1) and does not belong to its human inhabitants.Leviticus 25:23 states:
"The land must not be sold permanently because the land is mine, and you are but aliens and my tenants."[11]
As a result of the teachings which emphasis relationship, partnership and safeguarding, Christian environmentalists oppose policies and practices that threaten the health or survival of the planet. Of particular concern to such Christians are the current widespread reliance onnon-renewable resources,habitat destruction,pollution, and all other factors that contribute toclimate change or otherwise threaten the health of theecosystem. Due to these positions, many Christian environmentalists have broken ties with conservative political leaders.[12]
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TheAnglican Communion (including theEpiscopal Church) has strong beliefs about the need for environmental awareness and actions. Reducingcarbon footprints and moving towardsustainable living are priorities.[13] The British have played a leading role in the modern environmentalist movement, and PrincePhilip, Duke of Edinburgh created theAlliance of Religions and Conservation, which from 1995 to 2019 raised awareness of environmental issues andglobal warming in religious communities.[14][15] From 2024, the Anglican Church has had an environmental programme[16] which supports the Anglican Communion Environmental Network[17] including initiatives such as Eco Church with networkA Rocha.[18]
Patriarch Bartholomew I ofConstantinople, has voiced support for aspects of the environmentalist movement.[19] Fr.John Chryssavgis serves as advisor to the Ecumenical Patriarch, currentlyBartholomew I, on environmental issues such asglobal warming. Bartholomew I views climate change as a spiritual and ethical issue, stating that addressing it requires global collaboration and drastic lifestyle changes, as it affects everyone and cannot be ignored.[20][21]
Orthodox Christian theology is generally moremystical than the traditions which developed in theChristian West, emphasizing the renewal andtransfiguration of the whole creation through Christ's redemptive work. ManyEastern Christian monastics, such as those atMount Athos, are known for cultivating unusually close relationships with wild animals.
The lateCatholicosKarekin I stated that theArmenian Apostolic Church is committed to the defense of creation because harming the gift of God is a sin when a man must care for it.[22] UnderCatholicosKarekin II, the Armenian Church produced a seven-year ecological action plan.[23]
Traditionally,Ethiopian Orthodoxmonasteries and some churches have preserved small sacred forests around their buildings in memory of theGarden of Eden. This has allowed many endangered species to survive where their habitat has otherwise been lost.[24]
Evangelical Lutherans approach environmentalism with a deep-rooted theological framework that emphasizes the biblical mandate forstewardship, the interconnectedness of all creation, and the redemptive purpose of God's work in the world. By integrating these principles into their faith practice, Lutherans strive to fulfill their calling to care for God's creation and promote sustainable living practices for the flourishing of all life on earth.
MajorLutheran Synods acknowledge that the Bible calls to care for God's creation, and that the dominion that God gave his human creatures has often been abused to the detriment of creation:loss of biodiversity,resource depletion,environmental damage, etc. Christians are called to live according to God's wisdom in creation with his other creatures and as such,sustainable living is needed.[25][26]
Lutherans draw upon Genesis 2:15 and Psalm 24:1 (see above) which emphasize the importance of respecting and safeguarding God's creation. Additionally, Lutherans frequently cite passages such as Romans 8:19–22,[27][28][29][30] which speaks of creation eagerly awaiting its redemption from bondage to decay. This passage underscores the interconnectedness of humanity and the natural world, highlighting the shared destiny of all creation in God's redemptive plan. It prompts believers to work towards the restoration and reconciliation of all things, including the environment, in anticipation of God's ultimate renewal of creation.[citation needed]
In the Lutheran theology, the concept of vocation plays a significant role in shaping attitudes towards care of Creation. Martin Luther emphasized the idea that every Christian has a vocation or calling, and this includes responsibilities towards the care of creation. Thus, for Lutherans, environmental stewardship is not merely an optional virtue but an essential aspect of faithful Christian living.[citation needed]
Care for Creation remains a deep commitment for manyPresbyterians. Many mid-twentieth century progressiveconservationists were Presbyterian or raised in the Presbyterian faith.[31]
NaturalistJohn Muir and landscape artistWilliam Keith were raised in staunch Calvinist Presbyterian homes inScotland during the nineteenth century. With Presbyterian photographerCarleton Watkins, they built public support for the US national parks.[31] Their reformed spiritual upbringing informed their ideas about nature and that humanity's role was as God's keeper of the land.[32]
Calvinist theology, which emphasizes God's sovereignty over creation, inspired such environmentalists to see God's glory in nature. Seeing that Calvinists, like Presbyterians, believe in God's sustaining power, they consider that the Divine intimately relates to the created order through providence. In hisInstitutes of the Christian Religion,John Calvin further taught that nature acted as the most apparent medium of God's revelation outside of scripture.[33] TheWestminster Confession of Faith echoes this teaching in the first chapter on holy scripture and the fourth on creation.[34]
The Religious Society of Friends, orQuakers, has a history of environmental concern. Inspired by the testimony of stewardship, Friends have sought to practice ethical economics and creation care since the earliest days of the Society's founding.[35] Numerous organizations and initiatives unite Quakers in the cause ofenvironmental sustainability.
Quaker Earthcare Witness, founded in 1987 as the Friends Committee on Unity with Nature, is an organization which calls attention to the current ecological crises.[36][37] Based on Quaker convictions, the organization argues that the deeper cause of environmental problems has resulted from a more profound spiritual crisis of human separation from the land.[38]
The Earth Quaker Action Team (EQAT) is a non-violent protest organization that engages in the fight for ecojustice.[39] Energy companies that they view as ecologically harmful are often the targets of opposition. For example, in 2016, they pressured Philadelphia-based power company PECO to utilize solar energy.[40] In 2010, Bank Like Appalachia Matters (BLAM!) protested for thePNC Bank to stop financing industries engaged in mountaintop coal mining. By 2015, the bank ceased financing such enterprises.[41]
Catholic environmental activists have found support in teachings byPope Paul VI (Octogesima adveniens, #21) andPope John Paul II (e.g., theencyclicalCentesimus annus, #37–38).
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Pope Francis issued in 2015 the firstencyclical letter exclusively on environmental concerns, entitledLaudato si' (Be Praised).[42] In it, he encourages humans to protect the Earth. He endorsesclimate action and has made cases on Christian environmentalism several times. "Take good care of creation.St. Francis wanted that. People occasionally forgive, but nature never does. If we don't care for the environment, there's no way of getting around it."[43]
During a lecture at theUniversity of Molise in July 2014, Francis characterized environmental damage as "one of the greatest challenges of our times".[43] In his letter he also acknowledges some diversity within earlier Catholic thought: "Some committed and prayerful Christians, with the excuse of realism and pragmatism, tend to ridicule expressions of concern for the environment [while others] are passive: they choose not to change their habits and thus become inconsistent".[42]: Paragraph 217
TheLatter Day Saint movement has a complex relationship with environmental concerns, involving not only religion but politics and economics.[44][unreliable source?][45] Mormon environmentalists find theological reasons for stewardship and conservationism through biblical and additional scriptural references including a passage from theDoctrine and Covenants: "And it pleaseth God that he hath given all these things unto man; for unto this end were they made to be used, with judgment, not to excess, neither by extortion".[46] In terms ofenvironmentally friendly policies,The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has some history of conservationist policies for theirmeetinghouses and other buildings.[47][48] The church first placedsolar panels on a church meetinghouse in theTuamotu Islands in 2007.[49] In 2010, the church unveiled fiveLEED-certified meetinghouse prototypes that are being used for future meetinghouse designs around the world.[50]
While the LDS Church has implemented some environmentally friendly policies, not all members of the church identify as environmentalists or support the environmentalism movement.[51] A 2023 survey found that less than half of LDS Church members believe that climate change is caused by human activity and only one in ten view it as a crisis.[52]
ThemainlinePresbyterian Church (USA) has been an outspoken supporter of modern environmental causes. In 2018, it approved a policy for combatingenvironmental racism.[53] Other initiatives include establishing Presbyterian Earth Care Congregations and Green Leaf Seal camps, which involve many member churches and conference centers across the United States.[54]
The church's 2010 Earth Care Pledge summarizes critical aspects of creation restoration in four resolutions: worship, education, energy-efficient church facilities, and community outreach forenvironmental justice. Denominational resources on earth-care for local congregations stay available for distribution.[55]
TheSeventh-day Adventist church has stated its commitment to environmental stewardship[56][57] as well as taking action toavoid the dangers ofclimate change.[58] Its official statement advocates a "simple, wholesome lifestyle" that does not chase consumerism and the resultant waste. It calls for a "lifestyle reformation ... based on respect for nature, restraint in using the world's resources, reevaluating one's needs, and reaffirming the dignity of created life."[59]
In 2010, theLoma Linda University Center for Biodiversity and Conservation Studies was introduced to address the comparative lack of environmental concern among Christians in education, scientific research, and general awareness.[60][61]
Southern Baptists were among the first Christian groups in the United States to campaign for government control of pollution in the late 1960s.[62] Concerns about possible worship of nature led to a move away from this campaign in the 1980s. In 2008, several pastors revised their views and published a statement on the duty of Christians to care for the environment.[63]
The Southern Baptist Environment and Climate Initiative is an independent coalition of Southern Baptist pastors, leaders, and laypersons who believe instewardship that is both biblically rooted and intellectually informed, and the Convention has published positions on scripturally-mandated stewardship of the environment.[64]
TheFree Methodist Church teaches that "Scripture reveals that God is the Creator" and that to "love God implies caring for his creation."[65]
TheUnited Methodist Church believes in the need for environmental stewardship. For Christians, the idea of sustainability flows directly from the biblical call to human beings to be stewards of God's creation. Through various initiatives and programs, the United Methodist Church encourages its members to engage in environmental stewardship practices. This includes supporting sustainable agriculture, advocating for environmental policies, and promotingenergy conservation within church facilities.[66][67]
As the scientific community has presented evidence of climate change, some members of theevangelical community and other Christian groups have emphasized the need for Christianecology, often employing the phrase "creation care" to indicate the religious basis of their project. Some of these groups are now interdenominational, having begun from an evangelical background and then gained international and interdenominational prominence with increased public awareness of environmental issues. Organizations that have their roots in the evangelical Christian community includeA Rocha, theEvangelical Climate Initiative, and the Evangelical Environmental Network.
Some prominent members of theChristian right political faction broke with theBush administration and otherconservative politicians over theissue of climate change.Christianity Today endorsed theMcCain-Lieberman Bill, which was eventually defeated by theRepublicanCongress and opposed by Bush. According to the magazine, "Christians should make it clear to governments and businesses that we are willing to adapt our lifestyles and support steps towards changes that protect our environment."[68] The increasing Christian support for strong positions on climate change and related issues has been referred to as "the greening of evangelicals."[69] Many Christians have expressed dissatisfaction with leadership they feel places the interests of big businesses overChristian doctrine.[70]
In reaction to the rise of environmentalism, many conservative evangelical Christians have embracedclimate change denialism or maintained a neutral stance due to the lack of internal consensus on such issues. TheCornwall Alliance is a Christian right group that promotesfree-market environmentalism. TheNational Association of Evangelicals has stated that "global warming is not a consensus issue" and is internally divided on the Christian response to climate change.
In November 2022, a survey conducted by thePew Forum on Religion and Public Life, found that evangelicals were the most skeptical religious group regarding global warming.[71] 17% of Evangelical did not believe that there is solid evidence showing that the Earth is warming. 32% of Evangelical did believe that there was evidence because of human activity, but 36% did believe that warming was due to natural patterns. 53% of the total U.S. population does believe that the Earth is warming because of human influences and 66% ofunaffiliated Americans believe that global warming due to human impacts is real.
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