Ancient Egypt was acradle of civilization concentrated along the lower reaches of theNile River inNortheast Africa. It emerged fromprehistoric Egypt around 3150 BC (according toconventional Egyptian chronology),^[1] whenUpper and Lower Egypt were amalgamated byMenes, who is believed by the majority ofEgyptologists to have been the same person asNarmer.^[2] Thehistory of ancient Egypt unfolded as a series of stable kingdoms interspersed by the "Intermediate Periods" of relative instability. These stable kingdoms existed in one of three periods: theOld Kingdom of theEarly Bronze Age; theMiddle Kingdom of theMiddle Bronze Age; or theNew Kingdom of theLate Bronze Age.

Ancient Egypt 𓆎 𓅓 𓏏𓊖 km.t (Kemet)
c. 3150 BC–30 BC[a]
Map of ancient Egyptian cities and other major sites following theNile up to theFifth Cataract. ModernCairo andJerusalem are marked for reference.
Capital	See:List of historical capitals of Egypt
Common languages	Egyptian language
Religion	Egyptian religion
Historical era	Ancient history
• Unification ofUpper and Lower Egypt	c. 3150 BC
• Early Dynastic Period	c. 3150 BC – 2686 BC
• Old Kingdom	2686 BC – 2181 BC
• Middle Kingdom	2134 BC – 1690 BC
• New Kingdom	1549 BC – 1078/77 BC[b]
• Late Period	664 BC – 332 BC
• Ptolemaic Kingdom	332 BC – 30 BC
• Annexation by the Roman Empire	30 BC[a]
Preceded by Succeeded by Predynastic Egypt Roman Egypt

The pinnacle of ancient Egyptian power was achieved during the New Kingdom, which extended its rule to much ofNubia and a considerable portion of theLevant. After this period, Egypt entered an era of slow decline. Over the course of its history, it was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign civilizations, including theHyksos, theKushites, theAssyrians, thePersians, and, most notably, theGreeks and then theRomans. The end of ancient Egypt is variously defined as occurring with the end of theLate Period during theWars of Alexander the Great in 332 BC or with the end of the Greek-ruledPtolemaic Kingdom during theRoman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC.^[3] In AD 642, theArab conquest of Egypt brought an end to the region's millennium-longGreco-Roman period.

The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the Nile's conditions foragriculture. The predictableflooding of the Nile and controlled irrigation of its fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and thereby substantial social and cultural development. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored the mineral exploitation of the valley and its surrounding desert regions, the early development ofan independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with other civilizations, anda military to assert Egyptian dominance throughout theNear East. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of the reigningpharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of theEgyptian people in the context ofan elaborate system of religious beliefs.^[4]

Among the many achievements of ancient Egypt are: thequarrying, surveying, and construction techniques that supported the building of monumentalpyramids,temples, andobelisks; asystem of mathematics; a practical and effectivesystem of medicine; irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques; the first known planked boats;^[5]Egyptian faience andglass technology; new forms ofliterature; and theearliest known peace treaty, which was ratified with theAnatolia-basedHittite Empire.^[6] Itsart andarchitecture were widely copied and itsantiquities were carried off to be studied, admired, or coveted in the far corners of the world. Likewise, its monumental ruinsinspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for millennia. A newfound European and Egyptian respect for antiquities and excavations that began in earnest in theearly modern period has led to much scientific investigation of ancient Egypt and its society, as well as a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.^[7]

TheNile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settledagricultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization.^[8]

In Predynastic andEarly Dynastic times, theEgyptian climate was much less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt weresavanna and traversed by herds of grazingungulates. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs, and the Nile region supported large populations ofwaterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were firstdomesticated.^[9]

By about5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture andanimal husbandry, and identifiable by theirpottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was theBadarian culture, which probably originated in theWestern Desert; it was known for its high-quality ceramics,stone tools, and its use of copper.^[10]

The Badari was followed by theNaqada culture: the Naqada I (Amratian), the Naqada II (Gerzeh), and Naqada III (Semainean).^[11] These brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada I Period, predynasticEgyptians importedobsidian fromEthiopia, used to shape blades and other objects fromflakes.^[12][13] Mutual trade with theLevant was established during Naqada II (c. 3600–3350 BC); this period was also the beginning oftrade with Mesopotamia, which continued into the early dynastic period and beyond.^[14] Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley.^[15] Establishing a power center atNekhen, and later atAbydos,Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along theNile.^[16] They also traded withNubia to the south, the oases of thewestern desert to the west, and the cultures of theeastern Mediterranean andNear East to the east.^[17]

The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal-use items, which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery, high qualitydecorative stone vases,cosmetic palettes, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also developed aceramic glaze known asfaience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines.^[18][19] During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system ofhieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language.^[20]

The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the earlySumerian-Akkadian civilization ofMesopotamia and of ancientElam. The third-century BC Egyptian priestManetho grouped the long line of kings fromMenes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He began his official history with the king named "Meni" (or Menes in Greek), who was believed to have united the two kingdoms ofUpper andLower Egypt.^[21]

The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have been the kingNarmer, who is depicted wearingroyal regalia on the ceremonialNarmer Palette, in a symbolic act of unification.^[23] In the Early Dynastic Period, which began about 3000 BC, the first of the Dynastic kings solidified control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital atMemphis, from which he could control thelabor force and agriculture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative and criticaltrade routes to theLevant. The increasing power and wealth of the kings during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaboratemastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified king after his death.^[24] The strong institution of kingship developed by the kings served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.^[25]

Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during theOld Kingdom, fueled by the increasedagricultural productivity and resulting population growth, made possible by a well-developed central administration.^[26] Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, theGiza pyramids andGreat Sphinx, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of thevizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improvecrop yield, and drafted peasants to work on construction projects.^[27]

With the rising importance of central administration in Egypt, a new class of educated scribes and officials arose who were granted estates by the king in payment for their services. Kings also made land grants to their mortuary cults and localtemples, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the king after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic vitality of Egypt, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration.^[28] As the power of the kings diminished, regional governors callednomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the office of king. This, coupled withsevere droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC,^[29] is believed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.^[30]

After Egypt'scentral government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. The ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the king, used their new-found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes.^[31]

Free from their loyalties to the king, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control andpolitical power. By 2160 BC, rulers inHerakleopolis controlled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based inThebes, theIntef family, took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055 BC the northern Theban forces underNebhepetre Mentuhotep II finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as theMiddle Kingdom.^[32]

The kings of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's stability, which saw a resurgence of art and monumental building projects, and a new flourishing ofliterature.^[35] Mentuhotep II and hisEleventh Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizierAmenemhat I, upon assuming the kingship at the beginning of theTwelfth Dynasty around 1985 BC, shifted the kingdom's capital to the city ofItjtawy, located inFaiyum.^[36] From Itjtawy, the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far-sightedland reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory inNubia that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "Walls of the Ruler", to defend against foreign attack.^[37]

With the kings having secured the country militarily and politically and with vast agricultural and mineral wealth at their disposal, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. The Middle Kingdom displayed an increase in expressions of personal piety toward the gods. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style.^[38] Therelief and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical sophistication.^[39]

Around 1785 BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom kings weakened, aWestern Asian people called theHyksos, who had already settled in the Delta, seized control of Egypt and established their capital atAvaris, forcing the former central government to retreat toThebes. The king was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute.^[40] The Hyksos ('foreign rulers') retained Egyptian models of government and identified as kings, thereby integrating Egyptian elements into their culture.^[41]

After retreating south, the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos'Nubian allies, theKushites, to the south. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555 BC.^[40]Ahmose I waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. He is considered the founder of theEighteenth Dynasty, and the military became a central priority for his successors, who sought to expand Egypt's borders and attempted to gain mastery of theNear East.^[42]

The New Kingdompharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including theMitanni Empire,Assyria, andCanaan. Military campaigns waged underTuthmosis I and his grandsonTuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen.

Between their reigns,Hatshepsut, a queen who established herself as pharaoh, launched many building projects, including the restoration of temples damaged by the Hyksos, and sent trading expeditions toPunt and the Sinai.^[43] When Tuthmosis III died in 1425 BC, Egypt had an empire extending fromNiya in north westSyria to theFourth Cataract of the Nile inNubia, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such asbronze andwood.^[44]

The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the godAmun, whose growing cult was based inKarnak. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built.^[45]

Around 1350 BC, the stability of the New Kingdom was threatened when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name toAkhenaten, he touted the previously obscuresun deityAten as thesupreme deity, suppressed the worship of most other deities, and moved the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-dayAmarna).^[46] He was devoted to his newreligion andartistic style. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned and the traditional religious order restored. The subsequent pharaohs,Tutankhamun,Ay, andHoremheb, worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as theAmarna Period.^[47]

Around 1279 BC,Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history.^[c] A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in theBattle of Kadesh (in modernSyria) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recordedpeace treaty, around 1258 BC.^[48]

Egypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by theLibyanBerbers to the west, and theSea Peoples, a conjectured confederation of seafarers from theAegean Sea.^[d] Initially, the military was able torepel these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southernCanaan, much of it falling to the Assyrians. The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, andcivil unrest. After regaining their power, the high priests at thetemple of Amun in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.^[49]

Following the death ofRamesses XI in 1078 BC,Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city ofTanis. The south was effectively controlled by theHigh Priests of Amun at Thebes, who recognized Smendes in name only.^[50] During this time, Libyans had been settling in the western delta, and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta underShoshenq I in 945 BC, founding the so-called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. Libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta arose inLeontopolis, andKushites threatened from the south.

Around 727 BC the Kushite kingPiye invaded northward, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta, which established the25th Dynasty.^[52] During the 25th Dynasty, PharaohTaharqa created an empire nearly as large as theNew Kingdom's. Twenty-fifth Dynasty pharaohs built, or restored, temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.^[53] During this period, the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction ofpyramids (many in modern Sudan) since the Middle Kingdom.^[54][55][56]

Egypt's far-reaching prestige declined considerably toward the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Its foreign allies had fallen into theAssyrian sphere of influence, and by 700 BC war between the two states became inevitable. Between 671 and 667 BC the Assyrians began theAssyrian conquest of Egypt. The reigns of bothTaharqa and his successor,Tanutamun, were filled with frequent conflict with the Assyrians. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia, occupied Memphis, andsacked the temples of Thebes.^[57]

The Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of theTwenty-Sixth Dynasty. By 653 BC, the Saite kingPsamtik I was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt's firstnavy.Greek influence expanded greatly as thecity-state ofNaucratis became the home of Greeks in the Nile Delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital ofSais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525 BC, the Persian Empire, led byCambyses II, began its conquest of Egypt, eventually defeating the pharaohPsamtik III at theBattle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from Iran, leaving Egypt under the control of asatrap. A few revolts against the Persians marked the 5th century BC, but Egypt was never able to overthrow the Persians until the end of the century.^[58]

Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined withCyprus andPhoenicia in the sixth satrapy of theAchaemenid Persian Empire. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as theTwenty-Seventh Dynasty, ended in 402 BC, when Egypt regained independence under a series of native dynasties. The last of these dynasties, theThirtieth, proved to be the last native royal house of ancient Egypt, ending with the kingship ofNectanebo II. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as theThirty-First Dynasty, began in 343 BC, but shortly after, in 332 BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over toAlexander the Great without a fight.^[59]

In 332 BC,Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from thePersians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander's successors, theMacedonianPtolemaic Kingdom, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the newcapital city ofAlexandria. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a centre of learning and culture that included the famousLibrary of Alexandria and theMouseion.^[60] TheLighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city—as thePtolemies made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.^[61]

Hellenistic culture did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek andEgyptian gods weresyncretized into composite deities, such asSerapis, andclassical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and frequent mob violence in Alexandria.^[62] In addition, asRome relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, theRomans took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.^[63]

Egypt became a province of theRoman Empire in 30 BC, following the defeat ofMark Antony andPtolemaic QueenCleopatra VII byOctavian (laterEmperor Augustus) in theBattle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and theRoman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period.^[64] Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome.^[65]

Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued.^[66] The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.^[66]

From the mid-first century AD,Christianity took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from the paganEgyptian andGreco-Roman religions and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges ofDiocletian starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out.^[67] In 391, the Christian emperorTheodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples.^[68] Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed.^[69] As a consequence, Egypt's native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population continued to speaktheir language, the ability to readhieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted tochurches or abandoned to the desert.^[70]

The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the suprememilitary commander and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, thevizier, who acted as the king's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and thearchives.^[71] At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions callednomes each governed by anomarch, who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were theyplaces of worship, but were also responsible for collecting and storing the kingdom's wealth in a system ofgranaries and treasuries administered byoverseers, who redistributed grain and goods.^[72]

Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not usecoinage until theLate period,^[73] they did use a type of money-barter system,^[74] with standard sacks of grain and thedeben, a weight of roughly 91 grams (3 oz) of copper or silver, forming a common denominator.^[75] Workers were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn5+1⁄2 sacks (200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman might earn7+1⁄2 sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140 deben.^[75] Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list.^[75] During the fifth century BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces ofprecious metal rather than true money, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage.^[76]

Egyptian society was highly stratified, andsocial status was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, ornoble family that owned the land.^[77] Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in acorvée system.^[78] Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the "white kilt class" in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank.^[79] The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. It is unclear whetherslavery as understood today existed in ancient Egypt; there is difference of opinions among authors.^[80]

The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliestpeasant was entitled to petition thevizier and his court for redress.^[81] Although slaves were mostly used as indentured servants, they were able to buy and sell their servitude, work their way to freedom or nobility, and were usually treated bydoctors in the workplace.^[82] Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices, legal rights, and opportunities for achievement. Women such asHatshepsut andCleopatra VII even became pharaohs, while others wielded power asDivine Wives of Amun. Despite these freedoms,ancient Egyptian women did not often take part in official roles in the administration, aside from the royal high priestesses, apparently served only secondary roles in the temples (not much data for many dynasties), and were not so probably to be as educated as men.^[81]

The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to asMa'at.^[71] Although nolegal codes from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes.^[81] Local councils of elders, known asKenbet in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes.^[71] More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to theGreat Kenbet, over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference.^[83]

Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, orimpaling the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal's family.^[71] Beginning in the New Kingdom,oracles played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a "yes" or "no" question concerning the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgement by choosing one or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or anostracon.^[84]

A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the richfertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits.Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.^[85]

Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons:Akhet (flooding),Peret (planting), andShemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, thegrowing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.^[86] From March to May, farmers usedsickles to harvest their crops, which were thenthreshed with aflail to separate the straw from the grain.Winnowing removed thechaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.^[87]

The ancient Egyptians cultivatedemmer andbarley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer.^[88]Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets oflinen and to make clothing.Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.^[89]

The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people andanimals was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole.^[90] Animals, bothdomesticated andwild, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians.Cattle were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regularcensuses, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs.Poultry, such as ducks, geese, and pigeons, were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them.^[91] The Nile provided a plentiful source offish. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and provided both honey and wax.^[92]

The ancient Egyptians used donkeys andoxen asbeasts of burden, and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by theHyksos in theSecond Intermediate Period. Camels, although known from the New Kingdom, were not used as beasts of burden until the Late Period. There is also evidence to suggest thatelephants were briefly used in the Late Period but largely abandoned due to lack ofgrazing land.^[91]Cats, dogs, and monkeys were common family pets, while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such asSub-Saharan Africanlions,^[93] were reserved for royalty.Herodotus observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses.^[90] During the Late Period, the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular, such as the cat goddessBastet and the ibis godThoth, and these animals were kept in large numbers for the purpose of ritual sacrifice.^[94]

Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. Thesenatural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, andfashion jewelry.^[95]Embalmers used salts from theWadi Natrun formummification, which also provided thegypsum needed to make plaster.^[96] Ore-bearingrock formations were found in distant, inhospitablewadis in theEastern Desert and the Sinai, requiring large, state-controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensivegold mines inNubia, and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. TheWadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite,greywacke, and gold.Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose.^[97] Ancient Egyptians were among the first to use minerals such assulfur as cosmetic substances.^[98]

The Egyptians worked deposits of thelead oregalena at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces frommalachite ore mined in the Sinai.^[99] Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment inalluvial deposits, or by the more labor-intensive process of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were used in the Late Period.^[100] High-quality building stones were abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the Eastern Desert. Deposits of decorative stones such asporphyry, greywacke,alabaster, andcarnelian dotted the Eastern Desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits ofemeralds in Wadi Sikait andamethyst inWadi el-Hudi.^[101]

The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with theirforeign neighbors to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In thePredynastic Period, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs.^[102] An Egyptiancolony stationed in southernCanaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty.^[103]Tell es-Sakan in present-day Gaza was established as an Egyptian settlement in the late 4th millennium BC, and is theorised to have been the main Egyptian colonial site in the region.^[104]Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt.^[105][106]

By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade withByblos yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade withPunt provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons.^[107] Egypt relied on trade withAnatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stonelapis lazuli, which had to be imported from far-awayAfghanistan. Egypt's Mediterranean trade partners also includedGreece and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies ofolive oil.^[108]

r n kmt 'Egyptian language' inhieroglyphs

TheEgyptian language is a northernAfro-Asiatic language closely related to theBerber andSemitic languages.^[109] It has the longest known history of any language having been written fromc. 3200 BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian areOld Egyptian,Middle Egyptian (Classical Egyptian),Late Egyptian,Demotic andCoptic.^[110] Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic, but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes.^[111]

Ancient Egyptian was asynthetic language, but it became moreanalytic later on. Late Egyptian developed prefixal definite and indefinitearticles, which replaced the older inflectionalsuffixes. There was a change from the olderverb–subject–objectword order tosubject–verb–object.^[112] The Egyptianhieroglyphic,hieratic, and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phoneticCoptic alphabet. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of theEgyptian Orthodox Church, and traces of it are found in modernEgyptian Arabic.^[113]

Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro-Asiatic languages. These includepharyngeal andemphatic consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voicelessfricatives and voiced and voicelessaffricates. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Late Egyptian to about nine.^[114] The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is atriliteral or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to theperson. For example, the triconsonantal skeletonS-Ḏ-M is the semantic core of the word 'hear'; its basic conjugation issḏm, 'he hears'. If the subject is a noun, suffixes are not added to the verb:^[115]sḏm ḥmt, 'the woman hears'.

Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists callnisbation because of its similarity with Arabic.^[116] The word order ispredicate–subject in verbal and adjectival sentences, andsubject–predicate in nominal and adverbial sentences.^[117] The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun.^[118] Verbs and nouns are negated by theparticlen, butnn is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences.Stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC).^[119]

Hieroglyphic writing dates fromc. 3000 BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, calledhieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing,Demotic, became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing—along with formal hieroglyphs—that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.^[121]

Around the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modifiedGreek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic signs.^[122] Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine^[123] and Islamic periods in Egypt,^[124] but only in the 1820s, after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and years of research byThomas Young andJean-François Champollion, were hieroglyphssubstantially deciphered.^[125]

Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of thePer Ankh institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories.[126] Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as thePyramid andCoffin Texts, were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300 BC. Late Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented inRamesside administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those ofHarkhuf andWeni. The genre known asSebayt ('instructions') was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; theIpuwer papyrus, a poem of lamentations describingnatural disasters and social upheaval, is a famous example.

TheStory of Sinuhe, written inMiddle Egyptian, might be the classic of Egyptian literature.^[127] Also written at this time was theWestcar Papyrus, a set of stories told toKhufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests.^[128] TheInstruction of Amenemope is considered a masterpiece of Near Eastern literature.^[129] Towards the end of the New Kingdom, thevernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces such as theStory of Wenamun and theInstruction of Any. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt. From about 700 BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in thedemotic script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during theGreco-Roman period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such asRamesses II.^[130]

Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed ofmudbrick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread.^[131]Ceramics served as household wares for the storage, preparation, transport, and consumption of food, drink, and raw materials. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture.^[132]

The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made fromanimal fat and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin.^[133] Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, andcosmetics. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family'sincome.^[134]

Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and importedlutes andlyres from Asia.^[135] Thesistrum was a rattle-likemusical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies.

The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music.Senet, a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game wasmehen, which had a circular gaming board. "Hounds and Jackals" also known as 58 holes is another example of board games played in ancient Egypt. The first complete set of this game was discovered from aTheban tomb of the Egyptian pharaohAmenemhat IV that dates to the13th Dynasty.^[136] Juggling andball games were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb atBeni Hasan.^[137] The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyedhunting, fishing, and boating as well.

The excavation of the workers' village ofDeir el-Medina has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world, which spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organization, social interactions, and working and living conditions of a community have been studied in such detail.^[138]

Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, thecuisine of modern Egypt retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.^[139]

The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: theGreat Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the wide-ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments, architects could build largestone structures with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today.^[140]

The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mudbricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those inMalkata andAmarna, show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs.^[141] Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mudbricks. The architectural elements used in the world's first large-scale stone building,Djoser's mortuary complex, includepost and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif.^{[citation needed]}

The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added thepylon, the opencourtyard, and the enclosedhypostyle hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Greco-Roman period.^[142] The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was themastaba, a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an undergroundburial chamber. Thestep pyramid of Djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs.^[143] The use of the pyramid form continued in private tomb chapels of the New Kingdom and in the royalpyramids of Nubia.^[144]

•  
  Model of a household porch and garden,c. 1981–1975 BC
•  
  TheTemple of Dendur, completed by 10 BC,Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
•  
  The well preserved Temple of Isis fromPhilae is an example ofEgyptian architecture andarchitectural sculpture.
•  
  Illustration of various types of capitals, byKarl Richard Lepsius

The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change.[145] These artistic standards—simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. TheNarmer Palette, for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs.^[146] Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.^[147]

Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed withgum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.^[148]

Pharaohs usedreliefs to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces offunerary art, such asshabti statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife.^[149] During the Middle Kingdom,wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in theafterlife, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.^[150]

Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period,Minoan-style frescoes were found inAvaris.^[151] The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from theAmarna Period, where figures were radically altered to conform toAkhenaten's revolutionary religious ideas.^[152] This style, known asAmarna art, was quickly abandoned after Akhenaten's death and replaced by the traditional forms.^[153]

•  
  Stelophorous statue of Amenemhat;c. 1500 BC
•  
  Fresco which depictsNebamun hunting birds;c. 1350 BC
•  
  Portrait head of pharaohHatshepsut orThutmose III; 1480–1425 BC
•  
  Falcon box with wrapped contents; 332–30 BC

Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on thedivine right of kings. The Egyptian pantheon was populated bygods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of thispantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflictingmyths and stories into a coherent system.^[154] These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.^[155]

Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship. Normally, the god's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos.^[156] After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system oforacles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.^[157]

The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts oraspects. In addition to the body, each person had ašwt (shadow), aba (personality or soul), aka (life-force), and aname.^[158] The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin hiska andba and become one of the "blessed dead", living on as anakh, or "effective one". For this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a "feather of truth". If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form.^[159] If they were not deemed worthy, their heart was eaten byAmmit the Devourer and they were erased from the Universe.^{[citation needed]}

The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body bymummification, performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife.^[149] Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved bydesiccation. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing theinternal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately incanopic jars.^[160]

By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts callednatron. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in paintedcartonnage mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated.^[161]

Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased.Funerary texts were often included in the grave, and, beginning in the New Kingdom, so wereshabti statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife.^[162] Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.^[163]

The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt's domination in theancient Near East. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city ofBuhen on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to theLevant. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquerKush and parts of the Levant.^[164]

Typical military equipment includedbows and arrows, spears, and round-topped shields made by stretchinganimal skin over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began usingchariots that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and thekhopesh was adopted from Asiatic soldiers.^[165] The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs, such asSeqenenre Tao II and his sons, did do so.^[166] However, it has also been argued that "kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders, fighting alongside their troops".^[167] Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt.^[168]

In technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditionalempiricism, as evidenced by theEdwin Smith andEbers papyri (c. 1600 BC), is first credited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet anddecimal system.

Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known asfaience, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made ofsilica, small amounts oflime andsoda, and a colorant, typically copper.^[169] The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known asEgyptian blue, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (orsintering) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment.^[170]

The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently.^[171] It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished. However, they did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as addingtrace elements to control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.^[172]

The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards frommalaria and debilitatingschistosomiasis parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body. The grit and sand from stone-ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible toabscesses (thoughcaries were rare).^[173]

The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promotedperiodontal disease.^[174] Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence.^[175] Adultlife expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one-third of the population died in infancy.^[e]

Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, such asImhotep, remained famous long after their deaths.^[176] Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and dentists.^[177] Training of physicians took place at thePer Ankh or "House of Life" institution, most notably those headquartered inPer-Bastet during the New Kingdom and atAbydos andSaïs in the Late period.Medical papyri showempirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments.^[178]

Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection,^[179] whileopium,thyme, andbelladona were used to relieve pain. The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies. Prayers were made to the goddessIsis. Moldy bread, honey, and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns.^[180] Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieveasthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, setbroken bones, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred.^[181]

Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into aship hull and had mastered advanced forms ofshipbuilding as early as 3000 BC. TheArchaeological Institute of America reports that the oldestplankedships known are theAbydos boats.^[5] A group of 14 discovered ships inAbydos were constructed of wooden planks "sewn" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor ofNew York University,^[182] wovenstraps were found to have been used to lash the planks together,^[5] andreeds orgrass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams.^[5] Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging toPharaoh Khasekhemwy, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000 BC was 75 feet (23 m) long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh, perhaps one as early asHor-Aha.^[182]

Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood withtreenails to fasten them together, usingpitch forcaulking the seams. The "Khufu ship", a 43.6-metre (143 ft) vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of theGreat Pyramid of Giza in theFourth Dynasty around 2500 BC, is a full-size surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of asolar barque. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together withmortise and tenon joints.^[5]

Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean, especiallyByblos (on the coast of modern-day Lebanon), and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to theLand of Punt. In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a "Byblos Ship", which originally defined a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run; however, by the end of the Old Kingdom, the term had come to include large seagoing ships, whatever their destination.^[183]

In 1977, an ancient north–south canal was discovered extending fromLake Timsah to the Ballah Lakes.^[184] It was dated to theMiddle Kingdom of Egypt by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course.^[184][f]

In 2011, archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt, excavating a dried-up lagoon known asMersa Gawasis, unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages, such asHatshepsut's Punt, expedition onto the open ocean. Some of the site's most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes, made from papyrus, coiled in huge bundles.^[185] In 2013, a team of Franco-Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world's oldest port, dating back about 4500 years, from the time of King Khufu, on the Red Sea coast, near Wadi el-Jarf (about 110 miles south ofSuez).^[186]

The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynasticNaqada period, and show a fully developednumeral system.^[g] The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor, and grain.^[188] Texts such as theRhind Mathematical Papyrus and theMoscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction,multiplication, and division—use fractions, calculate the areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles and compute the volumes of boxes, columns and pyramids. They understood basic concepts ofalgebra andgeometry, and could solvesystems of equations.^[189]

2⁄3 inhieroglyphs

Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively.^[190] Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, they had to writefractions as the sum of several fractions. For example, they resolved the fractiontwo-fifths into the sum ofone-third +one-fifteenth. Standard tables of values facilitated this.^[191] Somecommon fractions, however, were written with a special glyph—the equivalent of the modern two-thirds is shown on the right.^[192]

Ancient Egyptian mathematicians knew thePythagorean theorem as an empirical formula. They were aware, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite thehypotenuse when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio.^[193] They were able to estimate the area of acircle by subtracting one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result:

Area ≈ [(8⁄9)D]² = (256⁄81)r² ≈ 3.16r²,

a reasonable approximation of the formulaπr².^[194]

Estimates of the size of the population range from 1–1.5 million in the 3rd millennium BC to possibly 2–3 million by the 1st millennium BC, before growing significantly towards the end of that millennium.^[195]

According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, conflicting DNA analysis on recent genetic samples such as theAmarna royal mummies has led to a lack of consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient Egyptians and their geographic origins.^[196]

The genetic history of Ancient Egypt remains a developing field, and is relevant for the understanding of population demographic events connecting Africa and Eurasia. To date, the amount of genome-wide aDNA analyses on ancient specimens from Egypt and Sudan remain scarce, although studies on uniparental haplogroups in ancient individuals have been carried out several times, pointing broadly to affinities with other African and Eurasian groups.^[197][198]

The currently most advanced full genome analyses was made on three ancient specimens recovered from the Nile River Valley, Abusir el-Meleq, Egypt. Two of the individuals were dated to the Pre-Ptolemaic Period (New Kingdom to Late Period), and one individual to the Ptolemaic Period, spanning around 1300 years of Egyptian history. These results point to a genetic continuity of Ancient Egyptians with modernEgyptians. The results further point to a close genetic affinity between ancient Egyptians andMiddle Eastern populations, especially ancient groups from theLevant.^[197][198]

Ancient Egyptians also displayed affinities toNubians to the south of Egypt, in modern-daySudan. Archaeological and historical evidence support interactions between Egyptian and Nubian populations more than 5000 years ago, with socio-political dynamics between Egyptians and Nubians ranging from peaceful coexistence to variably successful attempts of conquest. A study on sixty-six ancient Nubian individuals revealed significant contact with ancient Egyptians, characterized by the presence ofc. 57% Neolithic/Bronze Age Levantine ancestry in these individuals. Such geneflow of Levantine-like ancestry corresponds with archaeological and botanic evidence, pointing to a Neolithic movement around 7,000 years ago.[197]^[198]

Modern Egyptians, like modern Nubians, also underwent subsequent admixture events, contributing both "Sub-Saharan" African-like and West Asian-like ancestries, since theRoman period, with significance on theAfrican Slave Trade and theSpread of Islam.^[197][198]

Some scholars, such asChristopher Ehret, caution that a wider sampling area is needed and argue that the current data is inconclusive on the origin of ancient Egyptians. They also point out issues with the previously used methodology such as the sampling size, comparative approach and a "biased interpretation" of the genetic data. They argue in favor for a link between Ancient Egypt and the northernHorn of Africa. This latter view has been attributed to the correspondingarchaeological,genetic,linguistic andbiological anthropological sources of evidence which broadly indicate that the earliest Egyptians and Nubians were the descendants of populations in northeast Africa.^{[199][200][201][196]}

The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. Egyptian civilization significantly influenced theKingdom of Kush andMeroë with both adopting Egyptian religious and architectural norms (hundreds of pyramids (6–30 meters high) were built in Egypt/Sudan), as well as using Egyptian writing as the basis of theMeroitic script.^[202] Meroitic is the oldest written language in Africa, other than Egyptian, and was used from the 2nd century BC until the early 5th century AD.^[203] The cult of the goddessIsis, for example, became popular in theRoman Empire, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome.^[204] The Romans also importedbuilding materials from Egypt to erect Egyptian-style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus,Strabo, andDiodorus Siculus studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came to view as a place of mystery.^[205]

During theMiddle Ages and theRenaissance, Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and laterIslam, but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such asDhul-Nun al-Misri andal-Maqrizi.^[206] In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, leading to a wave ofEgyptomania across Europe, as evident in symbolism such as theEye of Providence and theGreat Seal of the United States. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities.^[207]Napoleon arranged the first studies inEgyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt'snatural history, which was published in theDescription de l'Égypte.^[208]

In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. Since the 2010s, theMinistry of Tourism and Antiquities has overseen excavations and the recovery of artifacts.^[209]

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  TheAbu Haggag Mosque is integrated into theLuxor temple from the 14th century BC, which has made it the oldest continuously used temple.
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  Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners (1887), byAlexandre Cabanel^[210]
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  Tourists at thepyramid complex of Khafre near theGreat Sphinx of Giza

• Egyptology
• Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts
• Index of ancient Egypt–related articles
• Outline of ancient Egypt
• List of ancient Egyptians
• List of Ancient Egyptian inventions and discoveries
• Archaeology of Ancient Egypt
• Archeological Map of Egypt
• British school of diffusionism

• Baines, John; Málek, Jaromír (2000).Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Checkmark Books.ISBN 978-0-8160-4036-0.
• Bard, Kathryn A., ed. (1999).Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge.ISBN 978-1-134-66525-9.
• Grimal, Nicolas (1994) [1988].A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley.ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8.
• Helck, Wolfgang; Otto, Eberhard, eds. (1972–1992).Lexikon der Ägyptologie. O. Harrassowitz.ISBN 978-3-447-01441-0.
• Lehner, Mark (1997).The Complete Pyramids. London: Thames & Hudson.ISBN 978-0-500-05084-2.
• Mallory-Greenough, Leanne M. (December 2002). "The Geographical, Spatial, and Temporal Distribution of Predynastic and First Dynasty Basalt Vessels".Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.88 (1):67–93.doi:10.2307/3822337.JSTOR 3822337.
• Midant-Reynes, Beatrix (2000).The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs. Wiley.ISBN 978-0-631-21787-9.
• Redford, Donald B., ed. (2001).The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.
• Schuenemann, Verena J.; Peltzer, Alexander; Welte, Beatrix; et al. (2017)."Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods".Nature Communications.8: 15694.Bibcode:2017NatCo...815694S.doi:10.1038/ncomms15694.PMC 5459999.PMID 28556824.
• Wilkinson, R.H. (2000).The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson.ISBN 978-0-500-05100-9.
• Wilkinson, R.H. (2003).The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson.ISBN 978-0-500-05120-7.
• Zakrzewski, Sonia (2007)."Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state"(PDF).American Journal of Physical Anthropology.132 (4):501–509.doi:10.1002/ajpa.20569.PMID 17295300.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

• "Egypt/2 Ancient Egypt" .Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). 1911.
• BBC History: Egyptians – provides a reliable general overview and further links
• Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989
• Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt,Art History.
• Digital Egypt for Universities. Scholarly treatment with broad coverage and cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics.
• Priests of Ancient EgyptArchived 22 March 2022 at theWayback Machine In-depth-information about Ancient Egypt's priests, religious services and temples. Much picture material and bibliography. In English and German.
• UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology
• Ancient Egypt and the Role of Women by Joann Fletcher
• "Full-length account of Ancient Egypt as part of history of the world". Archived from the original on 24 May 2021.