The Aghlabids adhered to theMu'tazilite rationalist doctrine withinHanafiSunni Islam, which they imposed as the state doctrine of Ifriqiya.[8]: 57 They sponsored the construction ofmosques and civic infrastructure, major examples of which have survived to the present day as some of the oldestIslamic-era monuments in the region. Their rule ended when they were conquered by the new power of theFatimids in 909.
In 800, the Abbasid CaliphHarun al-Rashid appointedIbrahim I ibn al-Aghlab, son of aKhurasanian Arab commander from theBanu Tamim tribe,[9][10] as hereditaryEmir of Ifriqiya, in response to the anarchy that had reigned in that province following the fall of theMuhallabids. At that time there were perhaps 100,000Arabs living in Ifriqiya, although theBerbers still constituted the great majority.[11] Most of the Arab immigrants had come fromSyria andIraq, both of which had consistently contributed a significant number of migrants to theMaghreb region from the start.[12]
Ibrahim was to control an area that encompassed what is now easternAlgeria,Tunisia andTripolitania.[13] The territory granted to Ibrahim was not demarcated, as it theoretically encompassed the entire Maghreb west ofCyrenaica, including any newly conquered territories.[12] Although independent in all but name, his dynasty never ceased to recognise Abbasid overlordship. The Aghlabids paid an annual tribute of 800,000 dirhams to the Abbasid Caliph and their suzerainty was referenced in thekhutba atFriday prayers.[12]
After the pacification of the country Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab established a residence at a new capital,al-Abbasiyya, founded outsideKairouan in 800[14] and built between 801 and 810.[15] This was done partly to distance himself from the opposition of theMalikite jurists and theologians, who condemned what they saw as the luxurious life of the Aghlabids (not to mention the fact that the Aghlabids wereMu'tazilites in theology, andHanafis infiqh), and disliked the unequal treatment of the Muslim Berbers.[16] Additionally, border defenses such asribats were set up, including in coastal cities likeSousse (Susa) andMonastir. The Aghlabids also built up the irrigation of the area and enhanced the public buildings andmosques of Ifriqiya.[13] Slaves were obtained through thetrans-Saharan trade, throughMediterranean commerce, and from raids on other lands like Sicily and Italy.[15]
The Aghlabid army was composed of two main elements. The first was thejund, or Arab troops descended from the Arab tribesmen who had participated in theearly Muslim conquests of North Africa.[15] The other component of the army was recruited from slaves, put in place partly to counterbalance to the power of thejund. It was recorded that 5,000 blackZanj slaves were stationed in Abbasiya as part of its garrison.[15] UnderZiyadat Allah I (r. 817–838) came a revolt of Arab troops (thejund) in 824, the last but most serious episode of confrontation between them and the Aghlabid emirs.[17][8]: 55 The rebellion was led by a commander named Mansur ibn Nasr al-Tunbudhi, who owned a fortress near Tunis. By September 824 the rebels had occupied Tunis and Kairouan, but the Aghlabids managed to repel them from Kairouan a month later and killed Mansur. Another chief, Amir ibn Nafi', took over leadership of the rebels and inflicted a severe defeat on Ziyadat Allah's forces. Eventually, the emir was able to gain the upper hand with the help of theIbadite Berbers of theNafwaza region and finally crushed the rebellion in 827.[17][8]: 55 In 838/839 (224AH) the southwestern province of Qastiliya (theDjerid region), largely inhabited byIbadi Muslims, revolted,[18] prompting the Aghlabids to recaptureTozeur, its main city, that year.[19]
In 827, soon after Ziyadat Allah defeated the rebellion, the Aghlabidconquest of Sicily began.Asad ibn al-Furat, aqadi from Kairouan, was appointed as commander of the Aghlabid forces.[20][21]: 135–136 The pretense for this invasion was an internal revolt in ByzantineSicily led by a military commander namedEuphemios who requested support from the Aghlabids.[22]
Despite the political differences and rivalry between the Aghlabids, who served under theAbbasid Caliphate, and theUmayyad Emirate of Cordoba, the Muslims ofal-Andalus (in theIberian Peninsula) also sent a fleet under Asba' ibn Wakil to aid the Aghlabid conquest of Sicily. Ibn Kathir recorded that a joint force of 300 Umayyad and Aghlabid ships were present.[23] The Aghlabid garrison at Mineo managed to get into contact with the Andalusian Umayyads, who immediately agreed to the alliance, provided that Asba' was recognized as the overall commander, and, together with fresh troops from Ifriqiya, they marched on Mineo. Theodotus retreated to Enna and the siege of Mineo was broken in July or August 830.[24][25][26][full citation needed] The combined Ifriqiyan and Andalusian army then torched Mineo and laid siege to another town, possibly Calloniana (modernBarrafranca). However, a plague broke out in their camp, causing the death of Asba' and many others. The town fell later, in autumn, but the Arabs' numbers were depleted to the point where they were forced to abandon it and retreat west. Theodotus launched a pursuit and inflicted heavy casualties, and, thereafter, most of the Andalusians departed the island. However, Theodotus too was killed at this time, possibly in one of these skirmishes.[27][28][full citation needed]
The conquest of Sicily proceeded slowly and at an uneven pace, progressing roughly from west to east through multiple campaigns over many years.[20][29]Palermo was conquered in 831 and became the capital of Muslim rule on the island and the base for further conquests.[29][30] Messina was besieged and captured in 842 or 843, possibly with the support of someNeapolitans, and became a base for further campaigns into theItalian mainland.[31]: 26 [32][33]Syracuse was captured in 878.[29] The conquest of the island was not fully completed until 902, whenTaormina was conquered.[29][34]: 107 Even after this, however, some patches of local Byzantine/Christian resistance continued until 967, long after the Aghlabid dynasty had ended.[20][35]: 207
Even as the conquest of Sicily was ongoing, the Aghlabids began campaigning on the Italian mainland. Their invasions ofCalabria andApulia, as well as their attacks on other centralMediterranean islands, were probably undertaken as an extension of their conquest of Sicily, aiming to aid the latter by attacking other Byzantine positions in the region.[36]: 476 [37]: 208 The first major expeditions to the peninsula took place between 835 and 843.[37]: 208 Amantea was taken in 839 or 846 and occupied until 886, when the Byzantines retook it.[37]: 208 [38]: 249 Taranto was captured in 840 and occupied until 880.[37]: 208 Bari was captured by Muslims either in 840 or 847.[36]Rome wasraided by a Muslim force in 846, although it is not certain that the raiders came from Aghlabid territory.[39]: 26 [40]: 122 Another attack towards Rome took place in 849, leading to agreat naval battle nearOstia during which a fleet of Muslim ships was destroyed, marking a halt to Muslim advances on the peninsula.[31]: 35 [33]
Many of the Muslim forces that operated on the peninsula or occupied some of its cities seem to have had only tenuous allegiances to the Aghlabid dynasty.[39]: 49 Some Muslim mercenaries even entered into the service ofNaples or localLombard rulers at various times.[39]: 19–26, 49–54 The early Muslim occupiers of Bari, for example, appear to have served as mercenaries ofRadelchis I ofBenevento. TheEmirate of Bari, which existed from 847 to 871,[37]: 209 had its own rulers whose relations to the Aghlabids are not clearly known.[36]
Elsewhere in the central Mediterranean, the Aghlabidsconquered the island ofMalta in 870.[41]: 208 They also attacked or raidedSardinia andCorsica.[9][42]: 153, 244 Some modern references state that Sardinia came under Aghlabid control around 810 or after the beginning of the conquest of Sicily in 827.[43][44][45][46] The historian Corrado Zedda argues that the island hosted a Muslim presence during the Aghlabid period, possibly a limited foothold along the coasts that forcibly coexisted with the local Byzantine government.[47] In contrast, the historian Alex Metcalfe argues that the available evidence for any Muslim occupation or colonisation of the island during this period is limited and inconclusive, and that Muslim attacks were limited to raids.[42] According to Fabio Pinna, most Sardinian historians and archaeologists studying this period of the island's history have reached the same conclusion, denying that a Muslim conquest and occupation of Sardinia took place, due to insufficient supporting evidence from archaeology and local historical records.[48]
The expansion campaign into Sicily, which Ziyadat Allah launched right after defeating thejund rebellion that started in 824, gave the restless Arab troops of Ifriqiya a new outlet for their military energies. It also brought in new revenues to the Aghlabid state.[49] At home, the Aghlabid emirs faced significant criticism fromMaliki religiousscholars, who held great influence as religious elites in the region. They dealt with this problem by drawing the Maliki scholars into the orbit of the state and granting them appointments to high religious offices. They also countered criticism of their wealth and privilege by publicly dispensing charity to the poor and sponsoring the construction and expansion of mosques.[8]: 55–58 All of these factors led to greater internal stability and peace in Ifriqiya after 827.[49][8]: 58 Agriculture and trans-Saharan trade were further developed under Aghlabid rule, leading to economic expansion and a growing urban population.[8]: 58
The Aghlabid emirs sponsored building projects, notably the rebuilding of theGreat Mosque of Kairouan, and the kingdom developed an architectural style which combinedAbbasid andByzantine architecture.[50] In 876Ibrahim II ibn Ahmad moved his residence from al-Abbasiya to a new palace-city that he founded, calledRaqqada. The new city contained a mosque,baths, market, and several palaces. For the rest of his life, Ibrahim II resided in a palace calledQasr al-Fath (Arabic:قصر الفتح,lit.'Palace of Victory'), which also remained the residence of his successors (except for some periods when they moved to Tunis).[51]
The decline of the dynasty began under Ibrahim II (875–902). An attack by theTulunids ofEgypt had to be repelled and a revolt of the Berbers put down with much loss of life.[citation needed] In 893 there began amongst theKutama Berbers the movement of theIsma'iliFatimids, led byAbu Abdallah al-Shi'i, thedā'ī of the future caliphAbdallah al-Mahdi, although it took almost a decade before they were able to seriously threaten Aghlabid power.[34]
In 902 Ibrahim II became the only Aghlabid emir to personally lead a military campaign in Sicily and the Italian mainland.[40]: 119 While he was away in Sicily, Abu Abdallah struck the first significant blow against Aghlabid authority in North Africa by attacking and capturing the city ofMila (present-day eastern Algeria). This news triggered a serious response from the Aghlabids, who sent a punitive expedition of 12,000 men from Tunis in October of the same year. Abu Abdallah's forces were forced to flee their base at Tazrut and re-establish themselves atIkjan.[34]: 106–107
Ibrahim II died in October 902 while besiegingCosenza in Italy and was succeeded byAbdallah II. On 27 July 903 Abdallah was assassinated and his sonZiyadat Allah III took power, basing himself in Tunis.[34]: 107–108 These internal Aghlabid troubles gave Abu Abdallah the opportunity to recapture Mila and then go on to captureSetif by October or November 904.[34]: 108 [8]: 61 Further Aghlabid attempts to crush his movement had little success. In 907, in response to the growing threat, Ziyadat Allah III moved his court back to Raqqada, which he fortified.[34]: 109–111 Later in 907 the heavily fortified city ofBaghaya, on the southern Roman road between Ifriqiya and the central Maghreb, fell to the Kutama.[34]: 112–113 This opened a hole in the wider defensive system of Ifriqiya and created panic in Raqqada. Ziyadat Allah III stepped up anti-Fatimid propaganda, recruited volunteers, and took measures to defend the weakly-fortified city of Kairouan.[34]: 113–115 In 908 he personally led his army in an indecisive battle against the Kutama army near Dar Madyan (probably a site betweenSbeitla andKasserine), with neither side gaining the upper hand. During the winter of 908-909 Abu Abdallah conquered the region aroundChott el-Jerid. An Aghlabid counterattack against Baghaya failed.[34]: 115–117
On 25 February 909, Abu Abdallah set out from Ikjan with an army of 200,000 men for a final invasion of Kairouan. The remaining Aghlabid army, led by an Aghlabid prince named Ibrahim Ibn Abi al-Aghlab, met them nearal-Aribus on 18 March. The battle lasted until the afternoon, when a contingent of Kutama horsemen outflanked the Aghlabid army and finally caused a rout.[34]: 118 When news of the defeat reached Raqqada, Ziyadat Allah III packed his valuable treasures and fled towards Egypt. The population of Kairouan looted the abandoned palaces of Raqqada. When Ibn Abi al-Aghlab arrived on the scene after his defeat, he called on the population to mount a last-ditch resistance, but they refused.[34]: 119–120 On 25 March 909 (Saturday, 1Rajab 296), Abu Abdallah entered Raqqada and took up residence here. That same year his forces retrieved the Fatimid caliph, Abdallah al-Mahdi, fromSijilmasa (in the western Maghreb) and brought him to Ifriqiya, thus establishing the Fatimid Caliphate.[34]: 119–120 [52]
The Aghlabids adhered to theMu'tazilite theological movement withinHanafiSunni Islam. The Aghlabids adopted the Mu'tazilite rationalist doctrine after it became the official doctrine of theAbbasid Caliphate ofBaghdad during the reign of caliphAl-Ma'mun (813–833). The officialization of this doctrine faced strong opposition from the Maliki majority of Ifriqiya, particularly due to the Mu'tazilite rejection of the orthodox belief that theQur'an was God's eternal word and therefore uncreated. Although the Aghlabids recognized the political influence of theMaliki religious leaders, they were both unable and unwilling to alter their governmental system to align with their beliefs.[8]: 57 Theqāḍī (judge) of Kairouan adhered to the Hanafi school and endorsed the concept ofKhalq al-Qur'an (createdness of the Qur'an). The Aghlabids consistently favoredIraqis as their higher-ranking judges, while theviziers had affiliations with the Maliki school.[53]
Nonetheless, the Aghlabids were able to bolster their religious standing and counter criticisms directed against them. Some Malikis were persecuted for rejecting Mu'tazilite beliefs, such as Sahsun, who suffered persecution during the reign ofMuhammad I ibn al-Aghlab (841–856) for rejecting the Mu'tazilite concept that the Qur'an was created. The Aghlabids also displayed great generosity in their spending on religious buildings, suchAl-Zaytuna Mosque, which they had reconstructed by 864.[8]: 57
As Sunni Muslims, the Aghlabids were vassals of the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad, representing the influence and presence of the Abbasids throughout Ifriqiya. The Aghlabids maintained strained relations with theRustamid dynasty ofTahert, who adhered to theKharijiteIbadi sect. Their relations with theIdrisid dynasty ofFez were always tense, as the Idrisids wereZaydiShi'ites who had expansionist ambitions on the relatively weak Rustamid state. Furthermore, the Aghlabids held a hostile stance towards theUmayyads in theEmirate of Cordoba.[54]
The Aghlabids were major builders and erected many of the oldest Islamic-era monuments in present-day Tunisia, including military structures like theRibat of Sousse and theRibat of Monastir, religious buildings like theGreat Mosque of Sousse and theGreat Mosque of Sfax, and practical infrastructure works like theAghlabid Reservoirs of Kairouan.[55] Much of their architecture, even their mosques, had a heavy and almost fortress-like appearance, but they nonetheless left an influential artistic legacy.[55][56][57]
One of the most important Aghlabid monuments is the Great Mosque of Kairouan, which was completely rebuilt by the emir Ziyadat Allah I in 836, although various additions and repairs were effected later which complicate the chronology of its construction.[55] The mosque features an enormous rectangularcourtyard, a largehypostyle prayer hall, and a thick three-storyminaret (tower from which thecall to prayer was issued). The minaret is the oldest surviving one in North Africa and its shape may have been modeled on existingRoman lighthouses.[58][59] Themihrab (niche symbolizing thedirection of prayer) of the prayer hall is among the oldest examples of its kind, richly decorated with marble panels carved in high-relief vegetal motifs and with ceramictiles withoverglaze andluster.[55][60] Next to the mihrab is the oldest survivingminbar (pulpit) in the world, made of richly-carvedteakwood panels. Both the carved panels of the minbar and the ceramic tiles of the mihrab are believed to be imports from AbbasidIraq.[55] An elegantdome in front of the mihrab wall is an architectural highlight of this period. Its light construction contrasts with the bulky structure of the surrounding mosque and the dome's drum is elaborately decorated with a frieze ofblind arches,squinches carved in the shape of shells, and carvedlow-relief motifs.[55]
TheMosque of Ibn Khayrun (also known as the "Mosque of the Three Doors") possesses an external façade featuring carvedKufic inscriptions andvegetal motifs, which some scholars have called the oldest decorated external façade inIslamic architecture[56] and which may contain the oldest foundation inscription crediting a private individual (rather than a ruler) for a mosque's construction.[61] Theal-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis, which was founded earlier around 698, also owes its overall current form to the Aghlabid emirAbu Ibrahim Ahmad (r. 856–863).[62][63]: 38
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