Abstract

Caecilians, the limbless subterranean amphibians, are an enigmatic group ofanimals inhabiting the tropical and subtropical regions representing less than 3% of all theextant amphibians. They are the least studied and poorly known among all the amphibians.The highly secret life of these amphibians is one of the major reasons for the poorunderstanding of their biology. These mysterious amphibians have not been given adequateattention by the herpetologists of the past and the present. Even the basic information aboutcaecilians in text books on amphibians is meagre and as elusive as these snaky predators.Caecilians are a fascinating group of animals with many unique morphological, anatomicaland physiological features. Many of the features evolved in caecilians, like skin-feeding,sensory tentacles, dual jaw-closing mechanism, have no parallels among the vertebrates.But our knowledge of the systematics, ecology, population status, and diversity of theseamphibians is not even satisfactory. The reputation for caecilians among common folk is asbad as that for snakes, due to the morphological similarity between the two groups. There isremarkable diversity but documentation of the basic aspects is poor, leading to lack ofstrategies for conserving these amphibians. In India, caecilians are distributed chiefly alongthe Western Ghats and the North East Hills. There are a few reports of caecilian presence inthe Eastern Ghats. As of now, there are 36 caecilian species known from India. In thischapter, general introductory details about caecilians are dealt with, keeping south WesternGhats region falling under the Kerala state as the backdrop. Currently 13 species, belongingto Ichthyophiidae and Indotyphlidae families, are known from the forests and nearbyanthropogenic habitats inside Kerala.

Abstract

The Western Ghats Mountains of southwestern India harbours a unique,endemic radiation of biogeographically ancient reptile fauna. This fauna is now facingincreasing threat due to several man-made factors such as habitat loss, alteration,wanton killing, killing out of fear and vehicular traffic mediated road-kills. Given thatthere are some taxonomically cryptic groups such as the shieldtail snakes (Uropeltidae),the day-geckoes (Gekkonidae: Cnemaspis) and such, some reptiles endemic to thisregion are at the grave risk of becoming extinct even before being taxonomicallydescribed and known. To add to this, some enigmatic taxa such as the Hutton’s pitviperand the Beypore skink are “Data Deficient” taxa that are quite rare and have evadedfield herpetologists for decades and hence became obscure in scientific literature.Therefore measures needed to be put in place to protect the Western Ghats ecoregion asa whole and also its fragile and poorly-known, reptile fauna.

Abstract

The agamid lizards in India are morphologically and ecologically diverse,inhabiting varied range of altitudes and habitats. Currently, 48 agamid speciescomprising of 17 Genera and including 20 endemic species have been reported fromIndia. High species diversity of Indian agamids corresponds to regions with evergreenforests, particularly the Himalayas extending in the north-east portions of India (15species), north eastern states (13 species) and the Western Ghats (14 species). Aboutone-third of the 48 species, are currently classified as critically endangered, endangeredand vulnerable according to IUCN, and the remaining species are at lower risk orlacking information. Recent changes in distribution and taxonomy have resulted in morenumber for species requiring assessments. The non-availability of conservation statusassessments for 18 species are a grim reminder that reiterate the need for new andupdated assessments. Currently, there is a scarcity of detailed information on theecology and natural history of most Indian agamid lizards. In this chapter, I emphasizethe need for ecological studies on individual species, which are imperative for speciesconservation, while providing a comprehensive compilation of information on a fewrare, endemic and threatened agamid lizard species.

Abstract

Indian Gharial, Gavialis gangeticus is the only surviving member of anancient family of crocodiles, found to swarm the Ganges and its tributaries fromChambal in Rajasthan to Mahanadi in Orissa and Brahmaputra and Barak valley ofAssam. Formerly, the species was distributed across the rivers of Pakistan, Burma,North India, Nepal and Bhutan. Now its population has shrunk up to 96% throughout itspast range; 5,000-10,000 in the 1940s to less than 200 by 1976. In 2006, the maturegharial population is less than 200 in India and 35 adults in Nepal. The species is extinctin Pakistan, Bangladesh and Bhutan. Only two records for the species were recordedfrom Myanmar in 1927 and presumed extinct now. The drastic decline in the gharialpopulation over the last decades can be attributed to over-hunting for skins and trophies,egg collection for consumption and killing for indigenous medicine. Now, only threewidely separated breeding subpopulations are left in India and one in Nepal. Whilehunting is no longer considered to be a significant threat, anthropogenic activities causean extreme limitation to gharial range due to irreversible loss of riverine habitat.Because of the rapid population decline, the gharial is listed by IUCN, as criticallyendangered. There should be i) controlled fishing in the river, ii) use of nylon gill net,stone and sand mining in the river should be prohibited, iii) proper management andcare of nests at captivity, iv) regular surveys and monitoring of gharial in the wild areasand v) reintroduction programme to save the remaining gharials.

Abstract

We conducted the studies on the Forest Owlet Heteroglaux blewitti toevaluate its ecological requirements from October 2001 to June 2004. A status surveywas conducted in ten protected areas of Maharashtra from February to June 2004.During this survey 98 individuals of the Forest Owlet were observed in Maharashtra. Ofthese 79 were found in Melghat Tiger Reserve and 19 individuals were found inToranmal Reserve Forest. Habitat studies show preference of the open type of Teakdominated forest by the Forest Owlet. Direct observations and pellet analysis reveal thatthe rodents, skink and agamid are the major prey items of the Forest Owlet. The ForestOwlets have prolonged breeding season from October to May. Encroachments,increasing use of pesticide and rodenticides, illicit woodcutting, grazing andsuperstitions among tribal are influencing the survival of the Forest Owlet. Communitymanagement, joint forest management and public awareness are the key factor in longterm conservation of the species.

Abstract

India lost millions of them, the loss is irreversible. Vultures, one of themost commonly sighted birds started disappearing from the Indian skies in mid1990s at an alarming pace. Various reasons were attributed for their declineincluding destruction of habitat, unavailability of food, use of veterinary drugs suchas diclofenac, environmental contaminations, secondary poisoning of vultures,exploitation and persecution, effects of modernization. Aviation authoritiesdeliberately killed vultures to avoid aircraft mishaps. The most affected of all isGyps species that have declined upto 95-99% in India. There are 22 species ofvultures in the world, out of which India abodes 9 species of vultures. Right throughthe ancient times, vultures have been venerated as an incarnation of supremacy. Thebody structure of vulture is well customized to its feeding habits. Vultures areconsidered nature’s most efficient scavengers, perhaps the quickest, cheapest andeasiest. This scavenger is the most “sterilized” of the birds of prey, internally as wellas externally. Vultures provide the society with a number of ‘services’, most notablydisposal of carrion. Such eco-services have a correlation with human health,economy and ecology. Banning of veterinary drugs and conducting of surveys andresearch work is a part of vulture conservation. For ensuring self-sustainability ofthese populations, the urgent need is to educate, inform and involve the localities andchildren in the awareness of the plight of rare and critically endangered species. Theinvolvement of future generation will surely show positive results.

Abstract

In tropical biodiversity hotspots, with diverse biota and high endemism, thereare several factors that affect existence of species. Habitat loss by deforestation,fragmentation and degradation by disturbance are some of the more commonlydocumented processes that affect species. In the unique Shola habitat on the sky islandsof Western Ghats, we examine how different aspects affect the endemic bird speciescomplex of Shortwings – White-bellied Shortwing and Rufous-bellied Shortwing. Wedescribe here the patchiness and unique distribution pattern of these species, taxonomicambiguity, genetic differences, effect of parasites across different populations of thesespecies. We also highlight conservation action required in some key populations ofthese species.

Abstract

Salim Ali’s fruit bat Latidens salimalii, is endemic to southern India This bathas long been considered as one of three rarest bats of the world. This is because, until2000, there were only few individuals caught in mist-nets and the total population isconsidered to be less than few hundreds (~ 250) with tiny distribution range. Based onthe above information IUCN has classified this species as “Critically Endangered”. Butrecent studies show that the species’ population is between 800-850 individuals (theestimate is based on the counts in day roosts). Also the distribution and the extent ofoccurrence of this bat are getting wider than before as new roosts were being locatedparticularly in two regions of Western Ghats; 1) High-Wavy Mountains 2) AgasthiyarHill Range in Southern India. The day roosts are typically located in high-altitudes, andare usually closer to the proximity of water source. They rely on wild fruits belong tothe plant spceis like Ficus, Elaeocarpus, Diospyrus, Prunus, Syzygium and Palaquiumin both regions. Currently the bat species face fewer threats; a) anthropogenic activitiesto some roosts might disturb their colony, b) roosts located in private estates may facehabitat alterations. Thus, habitat modeling studies (using advanced tools like GIS)would better depict the long term threats to this species. But the IUCN has to re-reviewthe current status (i.e., Critically Endangered) of L. salimalii.

Abstract

An ecological study of the hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus was conducted atJaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal. Hispid hare is a shy and reclusive speciesfound to have living in the tall grassland habitats of Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary innorthern West Bengal, apart from Dudwa and Manas in India. Due to its habit of livingin the places where the height of grasses are more than 3 meters direct sighting wasdifficult. Hence, I tried to assess its population in Jaldapara indirectly by enumeratingpellet density. Strip-transects (N=107) were laid randomly in tall grassland patcheswhere fresh and old pellets of the hispid hare were found. Out of the total of 107transects laid, 95 (89%) had pellet clusters of hispid hare, and the occurrence of pelletclusters varied significantly between transects. Pellet density varied from 0.01/m² to20.8/m²; tall grassland patches along the Torsa River had the least as well as the greatestnumber of pellets per sq.m, and were dominated by Saccharum spontaneum grass andsome weeds. Occurrence of different size class pellets varied significantly withintransects depicting different animals living in different localities. The mean length ofthe pellets also fluctuated. The density of hispid hare in Jaldapara was 1/0.115 sq.km.The short vegetation, ground cover and tall vegetation together determined theoccurrence of hispid hare in Jaldapara WLS. The main aim of this study was to giverecommendations to the authorities in managing the habitats for hispid hare and otherrelated species in India and Nepal.

Abstract

Population of the endangered Bengal Marsh mongoose Herpestes palustrisGhose, 1965 (Mammalia: Carnivora: Herpestidae), previously considered a subspecies ofH. javanicus, is endemic to the swampy southern West Bengal. It is the latest mongoosespecies in India, distributed in the peri-urban, non-forest, natural or manmade wetlands inHowrah, South and North 24-Parganas districts, situated on both banks of the riverHooghly. Now, only the undisturbed core area (bheries or fisheries) of East KolkataWetlands, a RAMSAR site spread over 125 km², is the last stronghold of this marshmongoose in the world. Although this typical wetland mongoose was recognized by theZoological Survey of India forty five years ago, no field studies were conducted to updateinformation on this rare animal until recently. Consequently, the Bengal marsh mongooseremained a poorly known and data deficient species. Recent researches have developed aknowledge-base on this marsh mongoose. This chapter highlights the past and presentdistributions, morphological features, ecology, behaviour, food habits, reproduction,conservation threats and status of H. palustris. During the field surveys, being conductedsince mid-2005, a sizeable population of this mongoose was found only in the largestbheries of Nalban, but probably dwindled in other habitats due to rapid reclamation of itshabitats for two new satellite townships, the Salt Lake City (Bidhannagar) and RajarhatMegacity in North 24-Parganas district, as well as other anthropogenic threats. Immediateconservation measures are required to be taken by the nodal authorities to prevent habitatencroachment and extinction of H. palustris in near future.

Abstract

The Hoolock Gibbon is the only ape found in India and its distribution inSoutheast Asia, spans India, Myanmar, Bangladesh and southern China, between 20° Nand 28° N, and 99° E to 98° E. Gibbons typically consist of an adult pair with 0-4immature offspring with average group size ranging from 2.7 to 4. They are exclusivelyarboreal and spend 15–25% of their time moving for foraging, feeding, sun basking andresting. They occupy a home range of about 14 to 55 hectares covering a day range ofabout 600-1200 m (300-1600 m). They are frugivorous in nature and their diet consistof 51-65% fruits followed by 5-23% leaves, 13% buds, 12% flowers, 0.1% animal prey.They are highly social animal and their reproductive strategies are less documented.The duration of the menstrual cycle is 27.83 days ranging from 20 to 33 days for sixcycles and of which the gestation period is about 210 days (but may vary from 195– 210days). Usually a single birth occurs during winter (November-February). Thepopulation of gibbons in the wild has declined by more than 90% over the past threedecades due to various anthropogenic threats, possibly because of burgeoning humanpopulation. Although some socio-cultural values are associated with these attractive andagile forest gymnasts, hoolock gibbons are seriously threatened due to anthropogenicactivities like agricultural cultivation, tea plantation, hunting and poaching etc.Therefore there is an urgent need to launch ‘Project Primate’ akin to ‘Project Tiger’ and‘Project Elephant’ for future survival of the species.

Abstract

Snow leopard is a felid, highly adapted to the cold and rugged mountainecosystem where it lives. Distributed across the mountains of 12 countries in CentralAsia, approximately 4,000-7,000 snow leopards are surviving today and theirpopulation is believed to be declining. Due to the difficult terrain that it inhabits, it hasbeen little studied and basic ecological and biological information about the species isstill unavailable. Various on-going research projects using satellite telemetry, digitalcamera trapping, genetic data analyses and other state of the art methods are continuingto help us understand the ecology of snow leopards better. Snow leopards are solitary,though social interactions between males and females occur occasionally. Cubs followtheir mothers for about a year before weaning away. Snow leopards have large homeranges, of the order of several hundred square kilometres. They primarily prey uponibex and bharal, though feed upon a large variety of other mountain mammals and birdsincluding domestic livestock. Snow leopards primarily communicate through scentthough vocalization can often be heard around the known season of mating. Found inextremely low density, their populations are threatened by increasing threats of mining,poaching and retaliatory killing by local herders. Various successful conservationmodels exist and are being implemented with variable success rate across the snowleopard distribution range. Given the extent of interface with humans, community basedconservation aimed at benefitting communities and wildlife alike have been found to bemost successful in case of the snow leopard.