1. Rappuoli, R., Black, S. & Lambert, P. H. Vaccine discovery and translation of new vaccine technology.Lancet378, 360–368 (2011).

   Article PubMed  Google Scholar 

2. Nakaya, H. I. et al. Systems biology of seasonal influenza vaccination in humans.Nature Immunol.12, 786–795 (2011).

   Article CAS  Google Scholar 

3. Pulendran, B. & Ahmed, R. Immunological mechanisms of vaccination.Nature Immunol.131, 509–517 (2011).

   Article  Google Scholar 

4. Plotkin, S. A. Vaccines: the fourth century.Clin. Vaccine Immunol.16, 1709–1719 (2009).

   Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

5. von Bubnoff, A. An immunological rationale for vaccines.IAVI Rep.14, 4–7 (2010).

   PubMed  Google Scholar 

6. Pead, P. J.Benjamin Jesty: Dorset's Vaccination Pioneer (Timefile Books, Chichester, 2009).

   Google Scholar 

7. Jenner, E.An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae (Low, London, 1798).

   Google Scholar 

8. Bazin, H.Vaccination: a History. From Lady Montagu to Genetic Engineering. (John Libbey Eurotext, Montrouge, 2011).

   Google Scholar 

9. Copeman, S. M. The Milroy Lectures on the natural history of vaccinia. Lecture III.Lancet151, 1375–1382 (1898).

   Article  Google Scholar 

10. Dudgeon, J. A. Development of smallpox vaccine in England in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.BMJ1, 1367–1372 (1963).

    Article  Google Scholar 

11. Gubser, C. et al. Poxvirus genomes: a phylogenetic analysis.J. Gen. Virol.85, 105–117 (2004).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

12. Tulman, E. R. et al. Genome of horsepox virus.J. Virol.80, 9244–9258 (2006).

    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

13. Pasteur, L. De l'atténuation du virus du choléra des poules.C. R. Acad. Sci.91, 673–680 (1880) (in French).

    Google Scholar 

14. Cadeddu, A. Pasteur et le choléra des poules: révision critique d'un récit historique.Hist. Philos. Life Sci.7, 87–104 (1985) (in French).

    CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

15. Pasteur, L., Chamberland, C.-E, & Roux, E. Sur la vaccination charbonneuse.C. R. Acad. Sci.92, 1378–1383 (1881) (in French).

    Google Scholar 

16. Pasteur, L. Méthode pour prévenir la rage après morsure.C. R. Acad. Sci.101, 765–772 (1885) (in French).

    Google Scholar 

17. Salmon, D. E. The theory of immunity from contagious diseases.Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci.35, 262–266 (1886).

    Google Scholar 

18. Pfeiffer, R. & Kolle, W. Experimentelle untersuchungen zur frage der schutzimpfung des menschen gegen typhus adbdominalis.Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr.22, 735–737 (1896) (in German).

    Article  Google Scholar 

19. Kolle, W. Zur aktiven immunisierung der menschen gegen Cholera.Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Abt. Jena19, 97–104 (1896) (in German).

    Google Scholar 

20. Haffkine, W. M. Remarks on the plague prophylactic fluid.BMJ1, 1461–1462 (1897).

    Article PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

21. Roux, E. & Yersin, A. Contribution à l'étude de la diphtérie.Ann. Inst. Pasteur (Paris)2, 629–661 (1888) (in French).

    Google Scholar 

22. von Behring, E. & Kitasato, S. Über das zustandekommen der diphtherie-immunität und der tetanus-immunität bie tieren.Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr.16, 1113–1114 (1890) (in German).

    Article  Google Scholar 

23. von Behring, E. Serum therapy in therapeutics and medical science.Nobelprize.org[online], (2011).

    Google Scholar 

24. Ehrlich, P. On immunity with special reference to cell life.Proc. R. Soc. Lond.66, 424–448 (1899).

    Google Scholar 

25. Glenny, A. T. & Hopkins, B. E. Diphtheria toxoid as an immunising agent.Br. J. Exp. Pathol.4, 283–288 (1923).

    CAS PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

26. Ramon, G. Sur le pouvoir floculant et sur les propriétés immunisantes d'une toxine diphtérique rendue anatoxique (anatoxine).C R. Acad. Sci. Paris177, 1338–1340 (1923) (in French).

    Google Scholar 

27. Calmette, A. & Guérin, C. Contribution à l'étude de l'immunité antituberculose chez les bovidés.Ann. Inst. Pasteur (Paris)28, 329–337 (1914) (in French).

    Google Scholar 

28. Calmette, A.L'Infection Bacillaire et la Tuberculose 4th edn (Masson et Cie, Paris, 1936) (in French).

    Google Scholar 

29. Theiler, M. & Smith, H. H. The use of yellow fever virus modified byin vitro cultivation for human immunization.J. Exp. Med.65, 787–800 (1937).

    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

30. Lloyd, W., Theiler, M. & Ricci, N. I. Modification of virulence of yellow fever virus by cultivation in tissuesin vitro.Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.29, 481–529 (1936).

    Article  Google Scholar 

31. Monath, T. P. inHistory of Vaccine Development (ed. Plotkin, S. A.) 109–135 (Springer, New York, 2011).

    Book  Google Scholar 

32. Madsen, T. Whooping cough: its bacteriology, diagnosis, prevention and treatment.Boston Med. Surg. J.192, 50–60 (1925).

    Article  Google Scholar 

33. Madsen, T. Vaccination against whooping cough.JAMA101, 187–188 (1933).

    Article  Google Scholar 

34. Sato, Y. et al. Role of antibody to leukocytosis-promoting factor hemagglutinin and to filamentous hemagglutinin in immunity to pertussis.Infect. Immun.31, 1223–1231 (1981).

    CAS PubMed PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

35. Edwards, K. M., Decker, M. D., Mortimer, E. A. Jr. inVaccines 3rd edn (eds Plotkin, S. A. & Orenstein, W. A.) 293–344 (W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1999).

    Google Scholar 

36. Smith, W., Andrewes, C. H. & Laidlaw, P. P. A virus obtained from influenza patients.Lancet222, 66–68 (1933).

    Article  Google Scholar 

37. Francis, T. Jr & Magill, T. P. Vaccination of human subjects with virus of human influenza.Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.33, 604–606 (1936).

    Article  Google Scholar 

38. Smorodintsev, A. A., Tushinsky, M. D., Drobyshevskaya, A. I. & Korovin, A. A. Investigation on volunteers infected with the influenza virus.Am. J. Med. Sci.194, 159–170 (1937).

    Article  Google Scholar 

39. Maassab, H. F. & DeBorde, D. C. Development and characterization of cold-adapted viruses for use as live virus vaccines.Vaccine3, 355–369 (1985).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

40. Enders, J. F., Weller, T. H. & Robbins, F. C. Cultivation of the Lansing strain of poliomyelitis virus in cultures of various human embryonic tissues.Science109, 85–87 (1949).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

41. Salk, J. E. et al. Formaldehyde treatment and safety testing of experimental poliomyelitis vaccines.Am. J. Public Health Nations Health44, 563–570 (1954).

    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

42. Sabin, A. B., Hennessen, W. A. & Winsser, J. Studies on variants of poliomyelitis virus. I. Experimental segregation and properties of avirulent variants of three immunological types.J. Exp. Med.99, 551–576 (1954).

    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

43. Koprowski, H., Jervis, G. A. & Norton, T. W. Immune responses in human volunteers upon oral administration of a rodent-adapted strain of poliomyelitis virus.Am. J. Hyg.55, 108–126 (1952).

    CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

44. Hammon, W. M., Coriell, L. L., Wehrle, P. F. & Stokes, J. Jr. Evaluation of Red Cross gamma globulin as a prophylactic agent for poliomyelitis. IV. Final report of results based on clinical diagnoses.JAMA151, 1272–1285 (1953).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

45. Katz, S. L. et al. Studies on an attenuated measles virus vaccine. VIII. General summary and evaluation of results of vaccine.N. Engl. J. Med.263, 180–184 (1960).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

46. Hilleman, M. R., Buynak, E. B., Weibel, R. E. & Stokes, J. Jr. Live attenuated mumps-virus vaccine.N. Engl. J. Med.278, 227–232 (1968).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

47. Meyer, H. M. & Parkman, P. D. Rubella vaccination: a review of practical experience.JAMA215, 613–619 (1971).

    Article PubMed  Google Scholar 

48. Prinzie, A., Huygelen, C., Gold, J., Farquhar, J. & McKee, J. Experimental live attenuated rubella virus vaccine: clinical evaluation of Cendehill strain.Am. J. Dis. Child.118, 172–177 (1969).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

49. Plotkin, S. A., Farquhar, J. D., Katz, M. & Buser, F. Attenuation of RA27/3 rubella virus in WI-38 human diploid cells.Am. J. Dis. Child.118, 178–185 (1969).

    CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

50. Takahashi, M. et al. Development of a live attenuated varicella vaccine.Biken J.18, 25–33 (1975).

    CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

51. Takaku, K. et al. Japanese encephalitis purified vaccine.Biken J.11, 25–39 (1968).

    Google Scholar 

52. Benda, R. & Danes, L. Study of the possibility of preparing a vaccine against tick-borne encephalitis, using tissue culture methods. V. Experimental data for the evaluation of the efficiency of formol treated vaccines in laboratory animals.Acta Virol.5, 37 (1961).

    Google Scholar 

53. Germanier, R. & Fürer, E. Isolation and characterization of Gal E mutant Ty21a ofSalmonella typhi: a candidate for a live, oral typhoid vaccine.J. Infect. Dis.131, 553–558 (1975).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

54. Avery, O. T. & Goebel, W. F. Chemo-immunological studies on conjugated carbohydrate-proteins. V. The immunological specificity of an antigen prepared by combining the capsular polysaccharide of type III pneumococcus with foreign protein.J. Exp. Med.54, 437–447 (1931).

    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

55. Parke, J. C. Jr et al. Interim report of a controlled field trial of immunization with capsular polysaccharides ofHaemophilus influenzae type b and group CNeisseria meningitidis in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina.J. Infect. Dis.136, S51–S57 (1977).

    Article PubMed  Google Scholar 

56. Gotschlich, E. C., Liu, T. Y. & Artenstein, M. S. Human immunity to the meningococcus. III. Preparation and immunochemical properties of the group A, group B and group C meningococcal polysaccharides.J. Exp. Med.129, 1349–1365 (1969).

    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

57. Austrian, R. et al. Prevention of pneumococcal pneumonia by vaccination.Trans. Assoc. Am. Physicians89, 184–192 (1976).

    CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

58. Austrian, R. inHistory of Vaccine Development (ed. Plotkin, S. A.) 83–90 (Springer, New York, 2011).

    Book  Google Scholar 

59. Schneerson, R., Barrera, O., Sutton, A. & Robbins, J. B. Preparation, characterization and immunogenicity ofHaemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide-protein conjugates.J. Exp. Med.152, 361–376 (1980).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

60. English, M. et al. A randomised, double-blind, controlled trial of the immunogenicity and tolerability of a meningococcal group C conjugate vaccine in young British infants.Vaccine19, 1232–1238 (2001).

    Article  Google Scholar 

61. Eskola, J. & Antilla, M. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines.Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J.18, 543–551 (1999).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

62. Landy, J. Studies of Vi antigen. VI. Immunization of human beings with purified Vi antigen.Am. J. Hyg.50, 52–62 (1954).

    Google Scholar 

63. Robbins, J. D. & Robbins, J. B. Reexamination of the protective role of the capsular polysaccharide Vi antigen ofSalmonella typhi.J. Infect. Dis.150, 436–439 (1984).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

64. Provost, P. J. et al. An inactivated hepatitis A vaccine of cell culture origin.J. Med. Virol.19, 23–31 (1986).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

65. Wiktor, T. J., Plotkin, S. A. & Koprowski, H. Development and clinical trials of the new human rabies vaccine of tissue culture (human diploid cell) origin.Dev. Biol. Stand.40, 3–9, 1978.

    CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

66. Beardsley, T. Biotechnology: Cohen–Boyer patent finally confirmed.Nature311, 3 (1984).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

67. Hilleman, M. R. et al. inViral Hepatitis (eds Vyas, G. N., Cohen, S. N. & Schmid, R.) 525–527 (Franklin Institute Press, Philadelphia, 1978).

    Google Scholar 

68. McAleer, W. J. et al. Human hepatitis B vaccine from recombinant yeast.Nature307, 178–180 (1984).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

69. Zhou, J., Sun, X. Y., Stenzel, D. J. & Frazer, I. H. Expression of vaccinia recombinant HPV 16 Li and L2 ORF proteins in epithelial cells is sufficient for assembly of HPV virion-like particles.Virology185, 251–257 (1991).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

70. Kirnbauer, R. et al. Papillomavirus L1 major capsid protein self-assembles into virus-like particles that are highly immunogenic.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA89, 12180–12184 (1992).

    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

71. Sigal, L. H. et al. Vaccine consisting of recombinantBorrelia burgdorferi outer-surface protein A to prevent Lyme disease.N. Engl. J. Med.339, 216–222 (1998).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

72. Steere, A. C. et al. Vaccination against Lyme disease with recombinantBorrelia burgdorferi outer-surface lipoprotein A with adjuvant.N. Engl. J. Med.339, 209–215 (1998).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

73. Clark, H. F., Offit, P. A., Plotkin, S. A. & Heaton, P. M. The new pentavalent rotavirus vaccine composed of bovine (strain WC3)-human rotavirus reassortants.Pediatr. Inf. Dis. J.25, 577–583 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

74. Bernstein, D. I. et al. Efficacy of live, attenuated, human rotavirus vaccine 89–12 in infants: a randomised placebo-controlled trial.Lancet354, 287–290 (1999).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

75. Metchnikoff, E.Immunity in the Infective Diseases (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK,1905).

    Google Scholar 

76. Miller, J. A scientific odyssey: unravelling the secrets of the thymus.Med. J. Aust.183, 582–584 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

77. Cooper, M. D., Cain, W. A., Van Alten, P. J. & Good, R. A. Development and function of the immunoglobulin producing system. I. Effect of bursectomy at different stages of development on germinal centers, plasma cells, immunoglobulins and antibody production.Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol.35, 242–252 (1969).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

78. Oxman, M. N. et al. A vaccine to prevent herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia in older adults.N. Engl. J. Med.352, 2271–2284 (2005).

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

79. Plotkin, S. A. Correlates of protection induced by vaccination.Clin. Vaccine Immunol.17, 1055–1065 (2010).

    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references