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Nature Astronomy
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Solar wind contributions to Earth’s oceans

Nature Astronomyvolume 5, pages1275–1285 (2021)Cite this article

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Abstract

The isotopic composition of water in Earth’s oceans is challenging to recreate using a plausible mixture of known extraterrestrial sources such as asteroids—an additional isotopically light reservoir is required. The Sun’s solar wind could provide an answer to balance Earth’s water budget. We used atom probe tomography to directly observe an average ~1 mol% enrichment in water and hydroxyls in the solar-wind-irradiated rim of an olivine grain from the S-type asteroid Itokawa. We also experimentally confirm that H+ irradiation of silicate mineral surfaces produces water molecules. These results suggest that the Itokawa regolith could contain ~20 l m−3 of solar-wind-derived water and that such water reservoirs are probably ubiquitous on airless worlds throughout our Galaxy. The production of this isotopically light water reservoir by solar wind implantation into fine-grained silicates may have been a particularly important process in the early Solar System, potentially providing a means to recreate Earth’s current water isotope ratios.

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Fig. 1: SEM and TEM analyses of the space-weathered surface of Itokawa particle RA_QD02_0279.
Fig. 2: Representative APT data from Itokawa particle RA_QD02_0279 and DSCO.
Fig. 3: Graph of particle diameter versus the abundance of water generated by solar wind irradiation.
Fig. 4: Diagram of the D/H ratio that results from mixing solar-wind-irradiated fine-grained particles and chondritic water reservoirs.

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Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are either included in the Article and itsSupplementary Information or are available at the following open-access data repositoryhttps://doi.org/10.5525/gla.researchdata.1164. The open access data repository also contains all source data.

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Acknowledgements

The Hayabusa-returned sample RA-QD02-0279 was allocated to L.D. by the Planetary Material Sample Curation Facility of JAXA through the 5th International Announcement of Opportunity held in 2017. We would like to thank M. Suttle for the preparation and loan of the mounting rod, R. Ickert for providing access to the clean lab facility at the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre to mount the Itokawa particles and R. Mahajan for providing suitably fine-grained basaltic fragments to practice on. L.D. would also like to thank NASA JSC and the Lunar and Planetary Institute for the training received at the 4th training in extraterrestrial sample handling course. This work was funded by the UK STFC consortium grant numbers ST/T002328/1 awarded to M.R.L. and L.D. and ST/N000846/1 awarded to M.R.L. This work was also funded by a UAE seed grant awarded to M.R.L., as well as a SAGES small grant awarded to L.D. H.I. and J.P.B. were partially supported by the NASA Laboratory Analysis of Returned Samples (LARS) Program (grant number 80NSSC18K0936). This work was partially supported through the INL Laboratory Directed Research & Development (LDRD) Program under DOE Idaho Operations Office contract number DE-AC07-05ID145142, which supported J.A.A. D.F. is supported by an Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Reseacher Award (ARC DECRA) number DE190101307. This work was conducted within the Geoscience Atom Probe Facility at Curtin University, which was developed through funding from the Science and Industry Endowment Fund (grant number SIEF RI13-01) awarded to S.M.R. This work utilized the Tescan MIRA3 FE-SEM at the John de Laeter Centre, Curtin University, which was obtained via funding from the Australian Research Council LIEF program (grant number ARC LE130100053). We acknowledge the use of Curtin University’s Microscopy and Microanalysis Facility, whose instrumentation has been partially funded by the University, State and Commonwealth Governments. This work was performed, in part, at the Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, an Office of Science User Facility operated for the US DOE Office of Science. Sandia National Laboratories is a multi-mission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology and Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International, Inc., for the US DOE’s National Nuclear Security Administration under contract number DE-NA-0003525. The views expressed in the article do not necessarily represent the views of the US DOE or the United States Government.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Geographical and Earth Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK

    Luke Daly, Martin R. Lee, Lydia J. Hallis & Evangelos Christou

  2. Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

    Luke Daly, Phillip. A. Bland, Denis Fougerouse, Lucy V. Forman, Nicholas E. Timms, Fred Jourdan, Steven M. Reddy & Morgan A. Cox

  3. Australian Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

    Luke Daly

  4. Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    Luke Daly

  5. Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, USA

    Hope A. Ishii & John P. Bradley

  6. Geoscience Atom Probe Facility, John de Laeter Centre, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

    David W. Saxey, Denis Fougerouse, William D. A. Rickard & Steven M. Reddy

  7. Imaging and Analysis Centre, Natural History Museum, London, UK

    Tobias Salge

  8. School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science & Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

    Zakaria Quadir

  9. Microscopy & Microanalysis Facility, John de Laeter Centre, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

    Zakaria Quadir

  10. Nuclear Materials Department, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID, USA

    Jeffrey A. Aguiar

  11. Advanced Technology Center, Lockheed Martin, Palo Alto, CA, USA

    Jeffrey A. Aguiar

  12. Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    Khalid Hattar & Anthony Monterrosa

  13. Robert M Walker Laboratory for Space Science, Code KR, Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX, USA

    Lindsay P. Keller

  14. Jacobs, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX, USA

    Roy Christoffersen

  15. Laboratory for Astrophysics and Surface Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA

    Catherine A. Dukes

  16. Department of Astronomy and Planetary Science, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA

    Mark J. Loeffler

  17. Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

    Michelle S. Thompson

Authors
  1. Luke Daly

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  2. Martin R. Lee

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  3. Lydia J. Hallis

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  4. Hope A. Ishii

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  6. Phillip. A. Bland

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  7. David W. Saxey

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  8. Denis Fougerouse

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  9. William D. A. Rickard

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  10. Lucy V. Forman

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  11. Nicholas E. Timms

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  15. Zakaria Quadir

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  16. Evangelos Christou

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  18. Jeffrey A. Aguiar

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  19. Khalid Hattar

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  21. Lindsay P. Keller

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  22. Roy Christoffersen

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  23. Catherine A. Dukes

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  24. Mark J. Loeffler

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  25. Michelle S. Thompson

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Contributions

L.D. conceived the project with input from M.R.L. Itokawa sample handling and mounting was conducted by M.A.C. and L.D. Itokawa SEM analysis was conducted by T.S., M.A.C. and L.D. H.A.I. and J.P.B. prepared the polished SC olivine on Ta for D2+ irradiation. J.A.A. arranged and advised on instrumentation for D2+ irradiation. K.H. and A.M. performed D2+ irradiations. L.P.K., R.C. and M.S.T. prepared the polished SC olivine for He+ irradiation and C.A.D. and M.J.L. conducted the irradiation. L.D. and S.M.R. prepared the polished SC olivine and conducted the laboratory exposure. Cr coating was undertaken by W.D.A.R., D.F. and L.D. FIB preparations for TEM and APT were undertaken by L.D., D.F. and W.D.A.R. TEM work was conducted by Z.Q., L.D. and W.D.A.R. APT analysis was undertaken by D.W.S., D.F. and L.D. The results were interpreted by L.D., P.A.B., L.V.F., M.R.L., L.J.H., N.E.T., F.J., D.W.S., D.F. and E.C. L.D., H.I. and W.D.A.R. wrote the methods. L.D. wrote the paper with input from all co-authors.

Corresponding author

Correspondence toLuke Daly.

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Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Peer review informationNature Astronomy thanks Sean Raymond and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Extended data

Extended Data Fig. 1 Back scatter electron (BSE) and in-beam secondary electron (IbSE) images of the front face of Itokawa particle RA-QD02-0279 and resulting APT specimens.

a, BSE image of the front face of Itokawa particle RA-QD02-0279 after Cr coating.b, BSE image of the front face of Itokawa particle RA-QD02-0279 after Ion beam Pt deposition in preparation for sample extraction for APT. The red circles indicate where the APT lift outs were extracted from the wedge.C) IbSE (left) and BSE (right) image of needle (D) half way through annular milling. The Pt protective layer is visible as well as the Cr layer. Annular milling was continued until the Pt was removed but leaving the Cr cap.D–H) IbSE (left) and BSE images (right) of each APT needle the Cr cap is visible at the apex of each tip in the BSE images as well as the Pt weld at the base.

Extended Data Fig. 2 Back scatter electron (BSE) and in-beam secondary electron (IbSE) images of the back face of Itokawa particle RA-QD02-0279 and resulting APT specimens.

a, BSE image of the back face of Itokawa particle RA-QD02-0279 after Cr coating.b, BSE image of the back face of Itokawa particle RA-QD02-0279 after Ion beam Pt deposition in preparation for sample extraction for APT. The red circles indicate where the APT lift outs were extracted from the wedge.c, BSE image of the back face of Itokawa particle RA-QD02-0279 after FIB lift out.D–H) IbSE (left) and BSE images (right) of each APT needle the Cr cap is visible at the apex of each tip in the BSE images as well as the Pt weld at the base.

Extended Data Fig. 3 APT data from Itoakwa particle RA_QD02_0279.

The APT needles extracted from the front face of Itokawa particle RA_QD02_0279 shown in Extended Data Fig.1E (A–C) and Extended Data Fig.1G (D–F) and from the back face shown in Extended Data Fig.2F (G–I) and Extended Data Fig.2H (J–L). All data extend from the Cr protective layer (grey spheres) through RA_QD02_0279’s space weathered surface into unweathered olivine. (A,D,G, andJ) APT measurement of the 3D distribution of Cr (grey spheres) and OH (teal spheres). (B,E,H, andK) APT measurement of the 3D distribution of Cr (grey spheres) and H2O (blue spheres) ions. (C,F,I, andL) Concentration of ions in atomic percent (at. %) with depth across the Cr capping layer (Cr, grey shaded region) space weathered rim (SW, blue shaded region) and the non-space weathered olivine (Ol, brown shaded region) revealing variations in the abundances of Cr (grey line), H (yellow line), OH (green line) and H2O (blue line) ions. Line widths have been adjusted to represent the 1 sigma uncertainty and depth profiles are absolute abundances not relative concentrations (Supplementary Data1). The boundary between the Cr and SW layer is marked by a vertical dashed red line and the boundary between the SW and Ol layer is marked by a vertical black dashed line.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Representative full APT mass to charge state spectra and localized mass to charge state spectra highlighting the oxygen series mass to charge peaks.

Mass to charge state (Atomic mass/charge (u/Q)) spectra showing the histogram of the number of ion counts detected at each u/Q step. For each the mass-to charge state ratio spectra the detected ions were produced from regions of interest within:A) the sputter coated Cr layer from Extended Data Fig.3J-L,B) the bulk olivine of Itokawa from Extended Data Fig.3J-L,C) the solar wind irradiated rim of Itokawa olivine from Extended Data Fig.3J-L,D) D-irradiated rim from Extended Data Figure8H-N. (A–D) show the entire mass to charge state spectra from 0-150 u/Q. (E-H) show the APT mass to charge state between 16-21 u/Q that contains the Oxygen series peaks.

Extended Data Fig. 5 The effect that changing the diameter of the cylindrical region of interest has on the sputter coated Cr and olivine interface and on counting statistics under the peak.

a, The 42 nm cylindrical region of interest used to produce the concentration profiles from the APT dataset Itokawa3 Extended Data Fig.3J-L.b, A 3 nm cylindrical region of interest from the APT dataset Itokawa3.c, Corresponding concentration profiles in atomic percent (at. %) for Cr (black line) and H (red line) from the 42 nm region of interest and sum Cr (grey line) and H (yellow line; including molecular ions) concentration profiles from the 3 nm wide cylinder. We note that the Cr-olivine interface is sharper in the 3 nm wide cylinder but it comes at the expense of the counting statistical uncertainty of the measurement. Line widths have been adjusted to represent the 1 sigma uncertainty and depth profiles are absolute abundances not relative concentrations.

Extended Data Fig. 6 Diagram of the D/H ratio that results from mixing solar wind irradiated <10 µm fine grained particles and chondritic water reservoirs.

The D/H ratio plot is generated by mixing water reservoirs of carbonaceous chondrite (CR[green volume], CI [blue volume], CM [orange volume], Cav [red volume, the average of CR,CI and CMs D/H = 0.000173[1,16]]; water abundance = 2-16 molecular % per atom[9]]), ordinary chondrite (purple volume, OC)19 and enstatite chondrite (brown volume, EC)10 material, and small space weathered particles, where only particles <10 µm that make up ~10 % of present day fine grained extraterrestrial dust are considered (D/H = 0.0000002[24] water abundance = 0.1-1.6 molecular % per atom that can reproduce the SMOW and Bulk Silicate Earth (BSE) D/H ratio1,17 (horizontal black dashed lines, Supplementary Data3). The upper and lower bounds of each field represent the upper and lower limits of the water content within the chondrites and solar wind irradiated particles. The relative mass contributions that span BSE and SMOW D/H ratios indicates the range of potential mixtures of theses extraterrestrial water reservoirs that could generate the present-day D/H of Earth’s oceans.

Extended Data Fig. 7 Operating conditions of the geoscience atom probe (R80).

The run number for each sample and sample label are given.

Extended Data Fig. 8 APT data from DSCO and PSCO standards.

DSCO APT data sets (A-U) initially ran through the Cr protective layer (grey spheres) through DSCO’s D-irradiated surface into unweathered olivine. (A,H, andO) APT measurements of the 3D distribution of Cr (grey spheres) and D (purple spheres) ions. (B,I, andP) APT measurements of the 3D distribution of Cr (grey spheres) and D2 (orange spheres) ions. (C,J, andQ) APT measurements of the 3D distribution of Cr (grey spheres) and H (yellow spheres) ions. (D,K, andR) APT measurements of the 3D distribution of Cr (grey spheres) and DO (green spheres) ions. (E,L, andS) APT measurement of the 3D distribution of Cr (grey spheres) and D2O (turquoise spheres) ions. (F,M, andT) APT measurements of the 3D distribution of Cr (grey spheres) and OH (teal spheres) ions. (G,N, andU) Concentration of ions in atomic percent (at. %) with depth across the Cr capping layer (Cr, grey shaded region), Deuterium irradiated rim (DI, blue shaded region) and the non-Deuterium irradiated olivine (Ol, brown shaded region) revealing the variation in the abundance of Cr (grey line), D (purple line), D2 (orange line), DO (red line), D2O (blue line), H (yellow line), and OH (green line) ions. Line widths have been adjusted to represent the 1 sigma uncertainty and depth profiles are absolute abundances not relative concentrations (Supplementary Data1). The boundary between the Cr and DI layer is marked by a vertical dashed red line and the boundary between the DI and Ol layer is marked by a vertical black dashed line. PSCO APT (V–X) data initially ran through the Cr protective layer (grey spheres) into unweathered olivine. (V) APT measurements of the 3D distribution of Cr (grey spheres) and OH (teal spheres) ions.W) APT measurements of the 3D distribution of Cr (grey spheres) and H2O (blue spheres) ions.X) Concentration of ions in at. % with depth across the Cr capping layer (Cr, grey shaded region), into the olivine (Ol, brown shaded region) revealing the variation in the abundance of Cr (grey line), OH (green line) and H2O (blue line) ions. Line widths have been adjusted to represent the 1 sigma uncertainty and depth profiles are absolute abundances not relative concentrations (Supplementary Data1). The boundary between the Cr and Ol layer is marked by a vertical dashed red and black line.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

Captions for Supplementary Data 1–11.

Supplementary Data 1

APT water profiles through Itokawa PSCO and DSCO data. Cylindrical region-of-interest (ROI) z profiles through APT data sets of Itokawa, PSCO and DSCO datasets used to generate Fig. 2 and Extended Data Figs. 4 and 8. ROI cylinder of Itokawa 2208 of 130 nm diameter, ROI cylinder Itokawa 2210 diameter 62 m, ROI cylinder Itokawa 02312 diameter 43 nm, ROI cylinder Itokawa 02329 diameter 50 nm, ROI cylinder of D+ irradiated 03028 diameter 70 nm, ROI cylinder of D+ irradiated 03029 diameter 85 nm, ROI cylinder of D+ irradiated 03030 diameter 71 nm ROI cylinder of SCO 02334 diameter 67 nm. All have a 2 nm bin width for concentration profiles.

41550_2021_1487_MOESM3_ESM.xlsx

Supplementary Data 2 Grain-size dependence on the abundance of solar-wind-derived water. Determination of the average total water content of various sized olivine grains with typical space-weathering rim thicknesses used to generate Fig. 3.

41550_2021_1487_MOESM4_ESM.xlsx

Supplementary Data S3 D/H bulk isotope ratio calculations for the Earth. Calculations are for the incorporation of varying amounts of water from carbonaceous chondrites, enstatite chondrites, ordinary chondrites and solar wind impinging on silicate surfaces, accounting for the water variable water abundance in each component used to generate Fig 4 and Extended Data Fig. 6.

Source data

Source Data Fig. 1

Unprocessed images.

Source Data Fig. 2

Excel spreadsheet and unprocessed images.

Source Data Fig. 3

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Source Data Fig. 4

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Daly, L., Lee, M.R., Hallis, L.J.et al. Solar wind contributions to Earth’s oceans.Nat Astron5, 1275–1285 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-021-01487-w

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