Hostname: page-component-669899f699-tzmfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-04T23:43:33.892Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

REVISITING MAYAPAN: Mexico's last Maya capital

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 July 2003

Susan Milbrath
Affiliation:
Florida Museum of Natural History, Box 117800, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-7800, USA
Carlos Peraza Lope
Affiliation:
Centro Regional de Yucatán, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Apartado 1015, Mérida, Yucatán, México

Abstract

Archaeological excavations begun at Mayapan in 1996 require re-evaluation of this site, sometimes disparaged as representing “decadent” Postclassic Maya culture. New discoveries show that the site was an international center that incorporated specific symbols in its art from areas as far away as Central Mexico and Oaxaca. Indeed, there is evidence of trade with both areas. Another important Postclassic trade route connected Mayapan to Yucatan's eastern coast and Peten, Guatemala. These connections are reflected in similar ceramics and architecture in the three areas. Revival of Terminal Classic traditions at Mayapan inspired certain architectural constructions and a stela cult marking Katun endings. The Katun-cycle chronologies of the Colonial period provide intriguing evidence that political events at Mayapan may be linked with the site's architectural history. The “founding” of Mayapan may have occurred earlier than the conventionally accepted date ofa.d. 1263 (end of Katun 13 Ahau). TheChilam Balam of Chumayel chronicles use of a 24-year Katun instead of a Katun of 20 Tuns, suggesting that the earliest founding event at Mayapan (Katun 8 Ahau) may date back to the eleventh centurya.d. and overlap with the demise of Chichen Itza. Some of Mayapan's earliest architecture is contemporary with Chichen Itza's latest constructions. Several hundred years after Mayapan was founded, there was a renaissance of the Cocom heritage evident in specific architectural forms modeled on those from Chichen Itza.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
© 2003 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

REFERENCES

Adams,Robert W.1953Some Small Ceremonial Structures of Mayapan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No. 9.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Andrews,Anthony P.1983Ancient Maya Salt Production and Trade.University of Arizona Press,Tuscon.
Andrews,Anthony P.1984The Political Geography of the Sixteenth Century Yucatan Maya:Comments and Revisions.Journal of Anthropological Research40(4):589–596.Google Scholar
Andrews,Anthony P.1990The Fall of Chichen Itza: A Preliminary Hypothesis.Latin American Antiquity1(3):258–267.Google Scholar
Andrews,Anthony P.1993Late Postclassic Lowland Maya Archaeology.Journal of World Prehistory7(1):35–69.Google Scholar
Andrews,Anthony P.1999The Florishing Trade on the Eastern Coast of Yucatán.Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute Newsletter27:8–9.Google Scholar
Andrews,Anthony P., andFernandoRobles Castellanos (coordinators)1986Excavaciones arqueológicas en El Meco, Quintana Roo, 1977.Serie Arqueología,Instituto de Anthropología e Historia, Mexico, DF.
Andrews,Anthony P.,TomasGallereta N.,FernandoRobles C.,RafaelCobos, andPuraCervera R.1988Isla Cerritos: An Itza Trading Port of the North Coast of Yucatan,Mexico.National Geographic Research4:196–207.Google Scholar
Andrews,Anthony P.,TomásGallereta Negrón, andRafaelCobos Palma1989Preliminary Report of the Cupul Survey Project.MexiconXI(5):91–95.Google Scholar
Andrews,Anthony P.,E. WyllysAndrewsV, andFernandoRobles Castellanos2000The Northern Maya Collapse and Its Aftermath.Paper presented at the 65th Annual Meeting of the Society forAmerican Anthropology,Philadelphia.
Andrews,E. Wyllys,IV1965Progress Report on the 1960–64 Field Seasons, NationalGeographic Society—Tulane University Dzibilchaltun Program.Tulane University,New Orleans.
Andrews,E. Wyllys,IV, andAnthony P.Andrews1975A Preliminary Study of the Ruins of Xcaret, Quintana Roo, Mexico.Middle American Research Institute,Publication 40.Tulane University,New Orleans.
Andrews,E. Wyllys,V, andJeremy A.Sabloff1986Classic to Postclassic: A Summary Discussion. InLate Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, edited byJeremy A.Sabloff andE. WyllysAndrewsV, pp.433–456.University of New Mexico Press,Albuquerque.
Arellano,Alfonso2002Testos y contextos: epigraphia y pintura mural. La pintura muralprehispánica en México. II. Area maya. InPrecolumbia Painting: Murals of Mesoamerica,coordinated by Beatriz De la Fuente, pp.331–357.Concultura and Jaca,Mexico, DF.
Arochi,Luis E.1991Concodancia cronológica arquitectónica entreChichén Itzá y Mayapán. InArqueoastronomía y etnoastronomía enMesoamérica, edited byJohannaBroda,StanislawIwaniszewski, andLucreciaMaupomé, pp.97–112.Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,Mexico, DF.
Aveni,Anthony F.1980Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico.University of Texas Press,Austin.
Aveni,Anthony F.2001Skywatchers: A Revised and Updated Version of Skywatchers ofAncient Mexico.University of Texas Press,Austin.
Aveni,Anthony F., andHorstHartung1978Three Maya Astronomical Observatories in the Yucatan Peninsula.Interciencia3(3):136–143.Google Scholar
Aveni,Anthony F., andHorstHartung1986Maya City Planning and the Calendar.Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 76, part 7.American Philosophical Society,Philadelphia.
Aveni,Anthony F.,SusanMilbrath, andCarlosPeraza Lopez2002Chichen Itza's Legacy in the Astronomically-Oriented Architectureof Mayapan.RES, in press.
Ball,Joseph W.1978Archaeological Pottery of the Yucatan-Campeche Coast: Studies inthe Archaeology of Coastal Yucatan, pp.71–146.Middle American Research Institute, Publication 46.Tulane University,New Orleans.
Ball,Joseph W.1979Ceramics, Culture History, and the Puuc Tradition. InThe Puuc. New Perspectives, edited byLawrenceMills, pp.18–35.Central College,Pella, IA.
Ball,Joseph W.1982The Tancah Ceramic Situation: Cultural and Historical Insightsfrom an Alternative Material Class. InOn the Edge of the Sea: Mural Painting at Tancah-Tulum, QuintanaRoo, Mexico.Appendix, pp.105–114.Dumbarton Oaks,Washington, DC.
Ball,Joseph W.1994Northern Maya Archaeology: Some Observations on an EmergingParadigm. InHidden among the Hills: Maya Archaeology in the Northwest YucatanPeninsula, edited byHanns J.Prem, pp.389–396.Verlag von Flemming,Möckmül.
Ball,Joseph W., andJohn M.Ladd1992Ceramics. InArtifacts from the Cenote of Sacrifice, Chichen Itza, Yucatan,edited byClemency ChaseCoggins, pp.191–233.Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 10, No. 3.Harvard University,Cambridge, MA.
Ball,Joseph W., andJennifer T.Taschek1989Teotihuacan's Fall and the Rise of the Itza: Realignments andRole Changes in the Terminal Classic Maya Lowlands. InMesoamerica after the Decline of Teotihuacan, a.d. 700–900,edited byRichard A.Diehl andJanet CatherineBerlo, pp.187–200.Dumbarton Oaks,Washington, DC.
Barrera Rubio,Alfredo, andJoséHuchím Herrera1990Architectural Restoration at Uxmal 1987–1987.Latin American Archaeology Reports No. 1.University of Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh.
Barrera Rubio,Alfredo, andCarlosPeraza Lope2001La Pintura Mural de Mayapán. InLa Pintural Mural Prehispánica en México: ÁreaMaya, pp.419–446.Leticia Staines Cicero, coordinator.Beatriz de la Fuentes, project director.Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, Universidad NacionalAutónoma de México,Mexico, DF.
Barrera Vásquez,Alfredo1957Codice de Calkini.Biblioteca Campechana,Campeche.
Barrera Vásquez,Alfredo1980Diccionario maya cordemex: maya–español,español–maya.Ediciones Cordemex,Merida, Yucatan.
Barrera Vásquez,Alfredo, andSylvanus GriswoldMorley1949The Maya Chronicles.Contributions to American Anthropology and History, No. 48.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Benavides,Antonio1981Coba: Una ciudad prehispánica de Quintana Roo.Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia,Mexico, DF.
Bey,George J.,III,Craig A.Hanson, andWilliam M.Ringle1997Classic to Postclassic at Ek Balam, Yucatan: Architectural andCeramic Evidence for Defining the Transition.Latin American Antiquity8(3):237–254.Google Scholar
Bey,George J.,Tara M.Bond,William M.Ringle,Craig A.Hanson,Charles W.Houck, andCarlosPeraza Lope1998The Ceramic Chronology of Ek Balam, Yucatan, Mexico.Ancient Mesoamerica9:101–120.Google Scholar
Bolles,David1990The Maya Calendar: The Solar-Agricultural Year, and CorrelationQuestions.MexiconXII(5):85–89.Google Scholar
Brainerd,George W.1958The Archaeological Ceramics of Yucatan.Anthropological Records, Vol. 19.University of California Press,Berkeley.
Braswell,Geoffrey E.1997El Intercambio prehispánico en Yucatán, Mexico. InX Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala,1996, vol. 2, edited byJuan PedroLaporte andHéctor L.Escobedo, pp.545–555.Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología,Guatemala.
Braswell,Geoffrey E.2000Industria litica clase tallada: obsidiana. InEl sitio maya de Topoxté: investigaciones en una isla dellago Yaxhá, Petén, Guatemala, edited byWolfgang W.Wurster, pp.208–221.Verlag Philipp von Zabern,Mainz, Germany.
Brinton,Daniel G.(editor)1969(1882)The Maya Chronicles. Brinton's Library of Aboriginal AmericanLiterature, No. 1.AMS Press,New York.
Brown,Clifford1991Ich Noh Cah Mayapán: Organización social yucateca delpostclásico tardío.Consejo de Arqueología Boletín19–23.Google Scholar
Bullard,William R.1970Topoxte: A Postclassic Maya Site in Peten, Guatemala. InMonographs and Papers in Maya Archaeology, edited byWilliam R.BullardJr., pp.245–308.Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 61.Harvard University,Cambridge, MA.
Bullard,William R.1973Postclassic Culture in Central Peten and Adjacent BritishHonduras. InThe Classic Maya Collapse, edited byT. PatrickCulbert, pp.221–241.University of New Mexico Press,Albuquerque.
Byland,Bruce E., andJohn M.Pohl1994In the Realm of Eight Deer: The Archaeology of the Mixtec Codices.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
Carlson,John1981A Geomantic Model for the Interpretation of Mesoamerican Sites: AnEssay in Cross-Cultural Comparison. InMesoamerican Sites and World Views, edited byElizabeth P.Benson, pp.143–215.Dumbarton Oaks,Washington, DC.
Carlson,John1999Pilgrimage and the Equinox “Serpent of Light andShadow” Phenomena at the Castillo, Chichén Itzá,Yucatán.ArchaeoastronomyXIV(1):136–152.Google Scholar
Carmack,Robert M.1970Toltec Influence on the Postclassic Culture History of HighlandGuatemala, pp.49–92.Middle American Research Institute, Publication 26.Tulane University,New Orleans.
Carmack,Robert M.1981The Quiché Mayas of Utatlán.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
Carrasco,Pedro1999The Tenocha Empire of Ancient Mexico: The Triple Alliance ofTenochtitlan, Tetzcoco, and Tlacopan.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
Carrasco Vargas,Ramón, andEduardoPerez de Heredia Puente1996Los Ultimos gobernantes de Kabah. InEighth Palenque Round Table, 1993, edited byMartha J.Macri andJanMcHargue, pp.297–307.Merle GreeneRobertson, general editor.Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute,San Francisco.
Caso,Alfonso1979Reyes y reinos de La Mixteca.Fondo de Cultura Económica,Mexico.
Chase,Arlen F., andDiane Z.Chase1985Postclassic Temporal and Spancial Frames for the Lowland Maya:A Background. InThe Lowland Maya Postclassic, edited byArlen F.Chase andPrudenceRice, pp.9–22.University of Texas Press,Austin.
Chase,Diane Z.1990The Invisible Maya: Population History and Archaeology at SantaRita Corozal. InPrecolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited byT. PatrickCulbert andDon S.Rice, pp.199–214.University of New Mexico Press,Albuquerque.
Chase,Diane Z.1992Postclassic Maya Elites: Ethnohistory and Archaeology. InMesoamerican Elites: An Archaeological Assessment, edited byDiane Z.Chase andArlen F.Chase, pp.118–134.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
Chowning,Ann1956A Round Temple and Its Shrine at Mayapan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports No. 34.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Chung,Heajoo Seu2000Chichen Itza de 800 a 1200 d.C.Ph.D. thesis,Estudios Mesoamericanos, Universidad Nacional Autonóma deMéxico,Mexico, DF.
Cobean,Robert H., andAlba GuadalupeMastache1989The Late Classic and Early Postclassic Chronology of the TulaRegion. InTula of the Toltecs: Excavation and Survey, edited byDan M.Healan, pp.34–48.University of Iowa Press,Iowa City.
Cobos,Rafael1997Chichen Itza y el clasico terminal en las tierras bajas Mayas. InXI Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueologicas en Guatemala, pp.791–801.Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología,Guatemala City.
Cobos,Rafael1998Chichén Itzá: Análisis de una comunidad delperíodo clásico terminal.Investigadores de la Cultura Maya6(2):316–331.Google Scholar
Cobos,Rafael2001Chichén Itzá.Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures, vol. 1, edited byDavídCarrasco, pp.183–187.Oxford University Press,New York.
Cobos,Rafael2002Chichén Itzá: Settlement and Hegemony during theTerminal Clasic Period. InThe Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition,and Transformation, edited byDon S.Rice,Prudence M.Rice, andArthur A.Demarest.Westview Press,Boulder, CO,in press.
Cobos,Rafael, andTeranceWinemiller2001The Late and Terminal Classic-Period Causeway System of ChichenItza, Yucatan, Mexico.Ancient Mesoamerica12:283–291.Google Scholar
Codex Nuttall1975Codex Nuttall: A Picture Manuscript from Ancient Mexico, edited by Zelia Nuttall.Dover Publications,New York.
Coggins,Clemency Chase, andOrrin C.ShaneIII (editors)1984Cenote of Sacrifice: Maya Treasures from the Sacred Well atChichén Itzá.University of Texas Press,Austin.
Craine,Eugene R., andReginald C.Reindorp1979The Codex Peréz and the Book of Chilam Balam of Maní.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
De la Fuente,Beatriz (coordinator)1999Precolumbian Painting: Murals of Mesoamerica.Concultura and Jaca,Mexico, DF.
Easby,Elizabeth Kennedy1967Ancient Art of Latin America: From the Collection of Jay C. Leff.The Brooklyn Museum,New York.
Edmonson,Munro S.1982The Ancient Future of the Itza: The Book of Chilam Balam ofTizimin.University of Texas Press,Austin.
Edmonson,Munro S.1988The Book of the Year: Middle American Calendric Systems.University of Utah Press,Salt Lake City.
Escamilla Ojeda,Bárbara1999Los artefactos de obsidiana de Mayapán, Yutcatán.Paper presented at Third Palenque Round Table,Palenque, Chiapas.
Erosa Peniche,José A.1939Discubrimientos y exploración arqueológica de lasubestructura del Castillo en Chichén Itzá.Actas de la Primera Sesion del XXVII Congreso Internacional deAmeranistasII:229–248.Google Scholar
Farris,Nancy1984Maya Society under Colonial Rule.Princeton University Press,Princeton, NJ.
Freidel,David1981Continuity and Disjunction: Late Postclassic Settlement Patternsin Northern Yucatan. InLowland Maya Settlement Patterns, edited byWendyAshmore, pp.311–332.University of New Mexico Press,Albuquerque.
García Campillo,José Miguel2000Estudio introductorio del léxico de las inscripciones deChichén Itzá, Yucatán, México.BAR International Series 831.British Archaeological Reports,Oxford.
Gendrop,Paul1994Escultura Azteca: Una aproximación a su estética.Editorial Trillas,Mexico, DF.
Gillespie,Susan2000Rethinking Ancient Maya Social Organization: Replacing “Lineage” with “House.”American Anthropologist102(3):467–484.Google Scholar
Graff,Don2000Material Culture in the Madrid Codex.Human Mosaic33(1):17–32.Google Scholar
Graff,Don, andGabrielleVail2001Censers and Stars: Issues in the Dating of the Madrid Codex.Latin American Indian Literatures Journal17(1):58–95.Google Scholar
Graña-Behrens,Christian Prager, andElizabethWagner1999The Hieroglyphic Inscription of the “High Priest'sGrave” at Chichen Itza, Yucatán, Mexico.MexiconXXI(3):61–66.Google Scholar
Hassig,Ross1988Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
Hermes,Bernard2000aEstelas and altares. InEl Sitio Maya de Topoxté, edited byWolfgang W.Wurster, pp.64–66.Verlag Philipp von Zabern,Mainz, Germany.
Hermes,Bernard2000bSíntesis y consideraciones finales por períodocronológico. InEl Sitio Maya de Topoxté, edited byWolfgang W.Wurster, pp.289–295.Verlag Philipp von Zabern,Mainz, Germany.
Hermes,Bernard, andRaúlNoriega1997El período postclásico en el área de laLaguna Yaxha: Una visión desde Topoxte. InXI Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueologicas en Guatemala, pp.755–778.Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología,Guatemala City.
Huchím Herrera,José, andCésarGarcía Ayala2000La Arquitectura que denota una ocupacion tardia en Uxmal,Yucatán.Investigadores de la Cultura Maya8(1):138–154.Google Scholar
Jones,Grant D.1998The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom.Stanford University Press,Stanford, CA.
Jones,Morris R.1952Map of the Ruins of Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico.Current Reports, no. 1.Department of Archaeology, Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Kelley,David H.1983The Maya Calendar Correlation Problem. InCivilization in the Ancient Americas: Essays in Honor of Gordon R.Willey, edited byRichard M.Leventhal andAlan L.Kolata, pp.157–208.University of New Mexico Press,Albuqueque, and Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology,Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Kepecs,Susan1998Diachronic Ceramic Evidence and Its Social Implications in theChikinchel Region, Northeast Yucatan, Mexico.Ancient Mesoamerica9:121–135.Google Scholar
Kepecs,Susan,GaryFeinman, andSylvianeBoucher1994Chichen Itza and Its Hinterland: A World-Systems perspective.Ancient Mesoamerica5:141–158.Google Scholar
Klein,Cecelia1976The Face of the Earth: Frontality in Two-Dimensional MesoamericanArt.Garland Publishing,New York.
Kowalski,Jeff K.1987The House of the Governor: A Maya Palace at Uxmal, Yucatan, Mexico.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
Kowalski,Jeff K.1994The Puuc as Seen from Uxmal. InHidden among the Hills: Maya Archaeology in the Northwest YucatanPeninsula, edited byHanns J.Prem, pp.93–120.Verlag von Flemming,Möckmül.
Kowalski,Jeff K., andNicholas P.Dunning1999The Architecture of Uxmal: The Symbolics of Statemaking at a PuucMaya Regional Capital. InMesoamerican Architecture as a Cultural Symbol, edited byJeff K.Kowalski, pp.274–297.Oxford University Press,New York.
Kowalski,Jeff K.,AlfredoBarrera Rubio,HeberOjeda Más, andJoséHuchím Herrera1996Archaeological Excavations of a Round Temple at Uxmal: SummaryDiscussions and Implications for Northern Maya Culture History. InEighth Palenque Round Table, 1993, edited byMarthaMacri andJanMcHarge, pp.281–296.Merle GreeneRobertson, general editor.Pre-Columbian Art Institute,San Francisco.
Krochock,Ruth J.1998The Development of Political Rhetoric at Chichen Itza, Yucatan,Mexico.Ph.D. dissertation,Southern Methodist University,Dallas, TX.
Kurjack,Edward B.1988On the Toltec Invasion: Mesoamerica.Mérida-Mesoamerica1:31–36.Google Scholar
Kurjack,Edward B.,RubenMaldonado C., andMerle GreenRobertson1991Ballcourts of the Northern Maya Lowlands. InThe Mesoamerican Ballgame, edited byVernon L.Scarborough andDavid R.Wilcox, pp.145–160.University of Arizona Press,Tuscon.
Le Plongeon,Agustus1881Mayapan and Maya Inscriptions.American Antiquarian Society April,246–282.Google Scholar
Lincoln,Charles E.1986The Chronology of Chichen Itza: A Review of the Literature. InLate Lowland Maya Civilization, edited byJeremy A.Sabloff andE. WyllysAndrewsV, pp.141–195.University of New Mexico Press,Albuquerque.
Lincoln,Charles E.1990Ethnicity and Social Organization at Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico.2 vols.University Microfilms International,Ann Arbor.
Lombardo de Ruiz,Sonia (coordinator)1987La pintura mural maya en Quintana Roo.Colección Fuentes, Instituto Nacional de Antropologíae Historía,Quintano Roo.
López Austin,Alfredo1996Los rostros de los dioses mesoamericanos.Arqueología MexicanaIV(20):6–19.Google Scholar
López Austin,Alfredo, andLeonardo LópezLuján1999Mito y realidad de Zuyuá.Fideicomiso Historia de las Américas, Serie Ensayos.Fondo de Cultura Económica,Mexico, DF.
López Austin,Alfredo, andLeonardoLópez Luján2000The Myth and Reality of Zuyuá. InMesoamerica's Classic Heritage: From Teotihuacan to the Aztecs, edited byDavídCarrasco,LindsayJones, andScottSessions, pp.21–84.University Press of Colorado,Boulder.
López Luján,Leonardo2001Death Deities.Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures, vol. 1, edited byDavídCarrasco, pp.318–320.Oxford University Press,New York.
Lothrop,Samuel K.1924Tulum: An Archaeological Study of the East Coast of Yucatan.Carnegie Institution Publication No. 335.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Love,Bruce1994The Paris Codex: Handbook for a Maya Priest.University of Texas Press,Austin.
Masson,Marilyn A.1999Historical Metaphors and Late Postclassic Revivals at Mayapan.Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanAnthropological Association,San Francisco.
Masson,Marilyn A.2000In the Realm of Nachan Kan.University Press of Colorado,Boulder.
Matheny,Ray T.1970The Ceramics of Aguacatal, Campeche, Mexico.Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation, No. 27.Provo,UT.
McCafferty,Geoffrey1996The Ceramics and Chronology of Cholula, Mexico.Ancient Mesoamerica7:299–324.Google Scholar
Milbrath,Susan1999Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars.University of Texas Press,Austin.
Miller,Arthur G.1982On the Edge of the Sea: Mural Painting at Tancah-Tulum, QuintanaRoo, Mexico.Dumbarton Oaks,Washington, DC.
Miller,Arthur G.1986From the Maya Margins: Images of Postclassic Politics. InLate Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, edited byJeremy A.Sabloff andE. WyllysAndrewsV, pp.199–223.School of American Research and University of New Mexico,Albuquerque.
Miller,Virginia1999The Skull Rack in Mesoamerica. InMesoamerican Architecture as a Cultural Symbol, edited byJeff K.Kowalski, pp.340–360.Oxford University Press,New York.
Miram,Helga-Maria1994A Method for Recalibrating Historical Dates in the Books of ChilamBalam. InHidden among the Hills: Maya Archaeology in the Northwest YucatanPeninsula, edited byHanns J.Prem, pp.376–388.Verlag von Flemming,Möckmül.
Morley,Sylvanus G.1970The Stela Platform at Uxmal, Yucatan, Mexico, pp.151–180.Middle American Research Institute, Publication 26.Tulane University,New Orleans.
Nicholson,Henry B.1982The Mixteca-Puebla Concept Revisited. InThe Art and Iconography of Late Post-Classic Central Mexico,edited byElizabethBoone, pp.227–254.Dumbarton Oaks,Washington, DC.
Nicholson,Henry B., andEloiseQuiñones Keber1994Mixteca-Puebla: Discoveries and Research in Mesoamerican Art andArchaeology.Labyrinthos,Culver City, CA.
Ochoa,Lorenzo, andErnestoVargas1987Xicalango, Puerto Chontal de intercambio: Mito y realidad.Anales de antropologíaXXIV:95–114.Google Scholar
Ochoa-Winemiller,Virginia1999Spatial Distribution of Peto Cream Ware in the Yucatan Peninsula.Master's thesis,Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana StateUniversity,Baton Rouge.
Ochoa-Winemiller,Virginia2000The Spatial Distribution of Peto Cream Ware in Yucatan, Mexico.Paper presented at the 65th Annual Meeting of the Society forAmerican Archaeology,Philadelphia.
Okoshi Harada,Tsubasa1997Tiempo de los Itzaés y de los Cocom. InSimbológicas, edited byMarie-OdileMarion, pp.181–190.Plaza y Valdes,Mexico.
Okoshi Harada,Tsubasa2000Analisis de la organizacíon político territorial delos Mayas peninsulares del postclássico tardio: Una nuevaperspectiva.Investigadores de la Cultura Maya8(1):28–37.Google Scholar
Pasztory,Esther1983Aztec Art.Harry N.Abrams,New York.
Paxton,Merideth1986Codex Dresden: Stylistic and Iconographic Analysis of a MayaManscript. 2 vols.University Microfilms International,Ann Arbor.
Paxton,Merideth1991Codex Dresden: Late Postclassic Ceramic Depictions and theProblems of Provenience and Date of Painting. InSixth Palenque Round Table, 1986, edited byVirginia M.Fields, pp.303–308.Merle GreeneRobertson, general editor.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
Paxton,Merideth2001The Cosmos of the Yucatec Maya: Cycles and Steps from the MadridCodex.University of New Mexico Press,Albuquerque.
Peniche Rivero,Piedad1987“Quiénes son los Itzá,” su identidad,sus dinastías, y su poder sobre Yucatán. InMemorias del Primer Coloquio Internacional de Mayistas: 5–10 de agosto de 1985, pp.939–952.Universal Nacional Autónoma de México,Mexico, DF.
Peraza Lope,Carlos1993Estudio y secuencia del material cerámico de San Gervasio,Cozumel.Thesis professional,Universidad Autonoma de Yucatán,Mexico.
Peraza Lope,Carlos1999Mayapán: Ciudad-capital del Postclásico.Arqueología MexicanaVII(37):48–53.Google Scholar
Peraza Lope,Carlos,Pedro DelgadoKú, andBárbara EscamillaOjeda2001Descubrimientos recientes en Mayapán, Yucatán.Investigadores de la Cultura Maya9(II):285–293.Google Scholar
Peraza Lope,Carlos,PedroDelgado Kú,BárbaraEscamilla Ojeda, andMarioGarrido Euán1999Trabajos de mantenimiento y conservaciónarquitectónica en Mayapán, Yucatán: Informe de lasegunda temporada: 1997.Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia,Merida, Yucatan, Mexico.
Peraza Lope,Carlos,MarioGarrido Euán,PedroDelgado Kú,BárbaraEscamilla Ojeda,MirzaLira Chim, andCésarGarcia Ayala1997Trabajos de mantenimiento y conservaciónarquitectónica en Mayapán, Yucatán: Informe de laprimera temporada: 1996.Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia,Merida, Yucatan, Mexico.
Piña Chan,Román1998Chichén Itzá: La ciudad de los brujos del agua.Fondo de Cultura Económica,Mexico, DF.
Pollock,Harry E.D.1936Round Structures in Aboriginal Middle America.Carnegie Institution Publication No. 471.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Pollock,Harry E.D.1954Excavations at Mayapan.Carnegie Institution of Washington Yearbook53:277–279.Google Scholar
Pollock,Harry E.D.1962Introduction. InMayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, pp.1–22.Carnegie Institution Publication No. 619.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Pollock,Harry E.D.1980The Puuc: An Architectural Survey of the Hill Country of Yucatanand Northern Campeche, Mexico.Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, No. 19.Harvard University,Cambridge, MA.
Proskouriakoff,Tatiana1955Mayapan: The Last Stronghold of a Civilization.Archaeology7(2):96–103.Google Scholar
Proskouriakoff,Tatiana1962aCivic and Religious Structures of Mayapan. InMayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, pp.87–164.Carnegie Institution Publication No. 619.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Proskouriakoff,Tatiana1962bThe Artifacts of Mayapan. InMayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, pp.321–442.Carnegie Institution Publication No. 619.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Pugh,Timothy2001Flood Reptiles, Serpent Temples, and the Quadripartite Universe:The Imago Mundi of Late Postclassic Mayapan.Ancient Mesoamerica12:247–258.Google Scholar
Pugh,Timothy, andPrudence M.Rice1996Arquitectura estilo Mayapán y evidencias deorganización dual en el sitio postclásico de Zacpeten,Peten, Guatemala. InX Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueologicas en Guatemala, pp.521–532.Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología,Guatemala City.
Quezada,Sergio1998Political Organization of the Yucatecan Mayas during the Eleventhto the Sixteenth Centuries. InMaya, edited byPeter J.Schmidt,Mercedesde la Garza, andEnriqueNalda, pp.469–480.Rizzoli,New York.
Ramírez Ramírez,Demetio, andMaria AnonietaAzcárate Soto2002Investigaciones recientes en Cozumel.Arqueología MexicanaIX(54):46–49.Google Scholar
Restall,Matthew1998Maya Conquistador.Beacon Press,Boston.
Ringle,William1990Who Was Who in Ninth-Century Chichen Itza.Ancient Mesoamerica1:233–243.Google Scholar
Ringle,William, andGeorge J.BeyIII1992The Center and Segmentary State Dynamics: African Models in the MayaLowlands.Paper presented at the Wenner-Gren Conference on the Segmentary Stateand the Classic Maya Lowlands,Cleveland State University,Cleveland, OH.
Ringle,William, andGeorge J.BeyIII2001Post-Classic and Terminal Classic Courts of the Northern MayaLowlands. InRoyal Courts of the Ancient Maya, Vol. 2: Data and Case Studies, edited byTakeshiInomata andStephen D.Houston, pp.266–307.Westview Press,Boulder, CO.
Ringle,William,TomásGallereta Negrón, andGeorgeBey1998The Return of Quetzalcoatl: Evidence for the Spread of a WorldReligion during the Epiclassic Period.Ancient Mesoamerica9:183–232.Google Scholar
Robertson,Donald1970The Tulum Murals: The International Style of the Late Post-Classic.Verhandlungnen des XXXVIII Internationalen Amerkanistenkongresses2:77–88.Google Scholar
Robles Castellanos,Fernando1986Cronología cerámica de El Meco. InExcavaciones arqueológicas en El Meco, Quintana Roo, 1977, pp.77–130.Serie Arqueología.Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia,Mexico, DF.
Robles Castellanos,Fernando1987La secuencia cerámica preliminar de Isla Cerritos, CostaCentro-Norte de Yucatan. InPapers from the 1985 Maya Ceramic Conference, edited byPrudence M.Rice andRobert J.Sharer, pp.99–109.BAR International Series 345(I).British Archaeological Reports,Oxford.
Robles Castellanos,Fernando1990La secuencia cerámica de la región de Cobá,Quintana Roo.Serie Arqueología.Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia,Mexico, DF.
Robles Castellanos,Fernando, andAnthony P.Andrews1986A Review and Synthesis of Recent Postclassic Archaeology inNorthern Yucatan. InLate Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, edited byJeremy A.Sabloff andE. WyllysAndrewsV, pp.53–98.University of New Mexico Press,Albuquerque.
Root,William C.1962Report on the Metal Objects from Mayapn. InMayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, pp.391–399.Carnegie Institution Publication No. 619.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Roys,Ralph L.1949Guide to the Codex Perez.Contributions to American Anthropology and History, No. 49.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Roys,Ralph L.1957The Political Geography of the Yucatan Maya.Carnegie Institution Publication No. 613.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Roys,Ralph L.1962Literary Sources for the History of Mayapan. InMayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, pp.25–86.Carnegie Institution Publication No. 619.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Roys,Ralph L.1966Native Empires in Yucatan: The Toltec-Maya Empire.Revista mexicana de estudios antropologicosXX:153–177.Google Scholar
Roys,Ralph L.1967The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
Roys,Ralph L.1972The Indian Background of Colonial Yucatan.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
Sabloff,Jeremy A.2002La Isla de Cozumel.Arqueología MexicanaIX(54):42–45.Google Scholar
Sabloff,Jeremy A.,William J.Rathje,DavidFreidel,Judith G.Conner, andPaula L.W.Sabloff1974Trade and Power in Postclassic Yucatan: Initial Observations. InMesoamerican Archaeology: New Approaches, edited byNormanHammond, pp.397–416.University of Texas Press,Austin.
Sahagún,Fray Bernardino de1959Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain,Book 9, translated by Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles E.Dibble.School of America Research and University of Utah Press,Salt Lake City.
Schele,Linda, andPeterMathews1998The Code of Kings: The Language of Seven Sacred Maya Temples andTombs.Scribner,New York.
Schmidt,Peter J.1998Contacts with Central Mexico and the Transition to thePostclassic: Chichén Itzá and Central Mexico. InMaya, edited byPeterSchmidt,Mercedesde la Garza, andEnriquueNalda, pp.427–449.Rizzoli,New York.
Schmidt,Peter J.1999Chichén Itzá: Resultados y proyectos nuevos(1992–1999).Arqueología MexicanaVII(37):32–39.Google Scholar
Schmidt,Peter J.2000Nuevos datos sobre la arqueología e iconografía deChichén Itzá.Investigadores de la Cultura Maya8(1):38–48.Google Scholar
Scholes,France V., andRalph L.Roys1968The Maya Chontal Indians of Acalan-Tixchel: A Contribution to theHistory and Ethnography of the Yucatan Peninsula.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
Seler,Eduard1963Comentarios al Códice Borgia.Fondo de Cultura Económica,Mexico, DF.
Sharer,Robert J.1994The Ancient Maya.5th ed.Stanford University Press,Stanford, CA.
Shook,Edwin M.1952The Great Wall of Mayapan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No. 2.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Shook,Edwin M.1954aA Round Temple at Mayapan, Yucatan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No. 16.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Shook,Edwin M.1954bThe Temple of Kukulcan at Mayapan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No. 20.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Shook,Edwin M.1955Another Round Temple at Mayapan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No. 27.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Shook,Edwin M., andWilliam N.Irving1955Colonnaded Buildings at Mayapan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No. 22.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Smith,A. Ledyard1962Residential and Associated Structures at Mayapan. InMayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, pp.165–320.Carnegie Institution Publication No. 619.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Smith,Michael E.1987The Aztecs.Blackwell Publishers,Cambridge.
Smith,Michael E.1990Long-Distance Trade under the Aztec Empire: The ArchaeologicalEvidence.Ancient Mesoamerica1:153–170.Google Scholar
Smith,Michael E., andCynthia M.Heath-Smith1980Waves of Influence in Postclassic Mesoamerica: A Critique of theMixteca-Puebla Concept.Anthropology4(2):18–50.Google Scholar
Smith,Phillip E.1955Excavations in Three Ceremonial Structures at Mayapan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No. 21.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Smith,Robert E.1954Cenote Exploraton at Mayapan and Telchaquillo.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No.12.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Smith,Robert E.1958The Place of Fine Orange Pottery in Mesoamerican Archaeology.American Antiquity24:157–161.Google Scholar
Smith,Robert E.1971The Pottery of Mayapan.Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 66.Harvard University,Cambridge, MA.
Solís,Felipe1981Escultura del Castillo de Teayo, Veracruz, Mexico.Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,Mexico, DF.
Solís,Felipe1999The High Central Plain: Late Postclassic. InPrecolumbian Painting: Murals of Mesoamerica,coordinated by Beatriz De la Fuente, pp.135–144.Concultura and Jaca,Mexico, DF.
Staines Cicero,Leticia1999Mayan Murals. InPrecolumbian Painting: Murals of Mesoamerica,coordinated by Beatriz De la Fuente, pp.209–267. Concultura and Jaca, Mexico. DF.
Stephens,John L.1963Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, vol. 1.Dover,New York.
Stuart,David1993Historical Inscriptions and the Maya Collapse. InLowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century a.d.: A Symposiumat Dumbarton Oaks 7th and 8th October 1989, edited byJeremy A.Sabloff andJohn S.Henderson, pp.321–354.Dumbarton Oaks,Washington, DC.
Suhler,Charles,TraciArden, andDavidJohnstone1998The Chronology of Yaxuna: Evidence from Excavation and Ceramics.Ancient Mesoamerica9:167–182.Google Scholar
Taube,Karl1992The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan.Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology No. 32.Dumbarton Oaks,Washington, DC.
Tozzer,Alfred M., (editor and translator).1941Landa's Relación de las cosas de Yucatán.Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology,Vol. 18.Harvard University,Cambridge, MA.
Tozzer,Alfred M., (editor and translator).1957Chichén Itzá and Its Cenote of Sacrifice.Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vols. 11 and 12.Harvard University,Cambridge, MA.
Thompson,J. Eric1957Deities Portrayed on Censers at Mayapan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No.40.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Thompson,J. Eric1970Maya History and Religion.University of Oklahoma Press,Norman.
Thompson,J. Eric1972A Commentary on the Dresden Codex.American Philosophical Society,Philadelphia.
Trejo Alvarado,Elia del Carmen1984El Meco: Una asentamiento en la costa norte del estado de QuintanaRoo. InInvestigaciones recientes en el area Maya. XVII Mesa Redonda,vol. II, pp.145–154.Sociedad de Antropología,San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas.
Umberger,Emily Good1981Aztec Sculptures, Hieroglyphs and History.University Microfilms International,Ann Arbor.
Umberger,Emily Good, andCecelia F.Klein1993Aztec Art and Imperial Expansion. InLatin American Horizons, edited byDon S.Rice, pp.295–336.Dumbarton Oaks,Washington, DC.
Vargas Pacheco,Ernesto1978Los Asentamientos prehispánicos y la arquitectura en la IslaCan Cun, Quintana Roo.Estudios de Cultura Maya11:95–111.Google Scholar
Vargas Pacheco,Ernesto1984Consideraciones generales sobre las fortificaciones militares enTulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico.Estudios de Cultura Maya15:29–55.Google Scholar
Vargas Pacheco,Ernesto1997Tulum: Organización político-territorial de la costaoriental de Quintana Roo.Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, UniversidadNacional Autónoma de México,Mexico, DF.
Velázquez Morlet,Adriana2000Tulum: ciudad del Amanecer.Arqueología MexicanaIX(54):52–55.Google Scholar
Villacorta,J. Antonio, andCarlos A.Villacorta1977Códices mayas. 2nd ed.Tipografía Nacional,Guatemala City.
Voss,Alexander W.1999Quiénes fueron los Itzáes? La identidad social de unlinaje gobernante.Paper presented at the Tercera Palenque Mesa Redonda,Chiapas, Mexico.
Voss,Alexander W.2001Los Itzaes en Chichen Itza: Los datos epigraphicos.Investigadores de la Cultura Maya9(1):151–173.Google Scholar
Winters,Howard D.1955aA Vaulted Temple at Mayapan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No. 30.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Winters,Howard D.1955bExcavation of a Colonnaded Hall at Mayapan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No. 31.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.
Winters,Howard D.1955cThree Serpent Column Temples and Associated Platforms at Mayapan.Department of Archaeology, Current Reports, No. 32.Carnegie Institution of Washington,Washington, DC.