Movatterモバイル変換


[0]ホーム

URL:


Skip to main content

Advertisement

Springer Nature Link
Log in

Gynaecomastia

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

  • Aetiopathogenesis and histopathology of gynaecomastia

  • Physiological gynaecomastia

  • Gynaecomastia and breast cancer

  • Principles of diagnostic evaluation and management

Gynaecomastia is defined as an enlargement of the male breast glandular tissue. Gynaecomastia is common and may be seen in up to two-thirds of all adult men (Nuttall1979; Carlson1980; Georgiadis et al.1994). There are no well-defined clinical thresholds to describe gynaecomastia. Various authors have used varying definitions ranging from 0.5 to 3 cm of palpable glandular tissue. Gynaecomastia must be differentiated from lipomastia or pseudogynaecomastia, which is characterized by an increase in subareolar fat alone in the absence of glandular enlargement. To differentiate gynaecomastia from pseudogynaecomastia, the subareolar tissue is compared with adjacent subcutaneous fat in the anterior axillary fold. In true gynaecomastia, a firm mound of tissue is palpable which is concentric with the areola (Braunstein2007). Gynaecomastia may be unilateral, bilateral or asymmetric. Although most cases of gynaecomastia are benign, it can be a sign of underlying systemic disease.

This is a preview of subscription content,log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save

Springer+
from ¥17,985 /Month
  • Starting from 10 chapters or articles per month
  • Access and download chapters and articles from more than 300k books and 2,500 journals
  • Cancel anytime
View plans

Buy Now

Chapter
JPY 3498
Price includes VAT (Japan)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
JPY 10295
Price includes VAT (Japan)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
JPY 12869
Price includes VAT (Japan)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide -see info
Hardcover Book
JPY 18589
Price includes VAT (Japan)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide -see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Similar content being viewed by others

Chapter© 2023

Chapter© 2023

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, books and news in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

References

  • Allan CA, McLachlan RI. Age-related changes in testosterone and the role of replacement therapy in older men. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2004;60(6):653–70.

    Article CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bannayan GA, Hajdu SI. Gynecomastia: clinicopathologic study of 351 cases. Am J Clin Pathol. 1972;57:431–7.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bercovici JP, Nahoul K, Tater D, Charles JF, Scholler R. Hormonal profile of Leydig cell tumors with gynecomastia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1984;59:625–30.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boccardo F, Rubagotti A, Battaglia M, Di Tonno P, Selvaggi FP, Conti G, et al. Evaluation of tamoxifen and anastrozole in the prevention of gynecomastia and breast pain induced by bicalutamide monotherapy of prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(4):808–15.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braunstein GD. Aromatase and gynecomastia. Endocr Relat Cancer. 1999;6:315–24.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braunstein GD. Clinical practice. Gynecomastia N Engl J Med. 2007;357:1229–37.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess HE, Shousha S. An immunohistochemical study of the long-term effects of androgen administration on female-to-male transsexual breast: a comparison with normal female breast and male breast showing gynecomastia. J Pathol. 1993;170:37–43.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson HE. Gynecomastia. N Engl J Med. 1980;303:795–9.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catalano S, Marsico S, Giordano C, Mauro L, Rizza P, Panno ML, et al. Leptin enhances, via AP-1, expression of aromatase in the MCF-7 cell line. J Biol Chem. 2003;278:28668–76.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catalano S, Mauro L, Marsico S, Giordano C, Rizza P, Rago V, et al. Leptin induces, via ERK1/ ERK2 signal, functional activation of estrogen receptor α in MCF-7 cells. J Biol Chem. 2004;279:19908–15.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen L, Chantra PK, Larsen LH, Barton P, Rohitopakarn M, Zhu EQ, et al. Imaging characteristics of malignant lesions of the male breast. Radiographics. 2006;26:993–1006.

    Article PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dimitrikakis C, Zhou J, Bondy CA. Androgens and mammary growth and neoplasia. Fertil Steril. 2002;77(4):S26–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fentiman IS, Fourquet A, Hortobagyi GN. Male breast cancer. Lancet. 2006;367:595–604.

    Article PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ford HC, Cooke RR, Keightley EA, Feek CM. Serum levels of free and bound testosterone in hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1992;36:187–92.

    Article CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forest MG, Lecoq A, Saez JM. Kinetics of human chorionic gonadotropin-induced steroidogenic response of the human testis. II. Plasma 17 alpha-hydroxy-progesterone, delta4-androstenedione, estrone, and 17 beta-estradiol: evidence for the action of human chorionic gonadotropin on intermediate enzymes implicated in steroid biosynthesis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1979;49:284–91.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fruhstorfer BH, Malata CM. A systematic approach to the surgical management of gynaecomastia. Br J Plast Surg. 2003;56:237–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgiadis E, Papandreou L, Evangelopoulou C, Aliferis C, Lymberis C, Panitsa C, et al. Incidence of gynaecomastia in 954 young males and its relationship to somatometric parameters. Ann Hum Biol. 1994;21:579–87.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanavadi S, Monypenny IJ, Mansel RE. Is mammography overused in male patients? Breast. 2006;15(1):123–6.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys RC, Lydon JP, O’Malley BW, Rosen JM. Use of PRKO mice to study the role of progesterone in mammary gland development. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 1997;2:343–54.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanhai RCJ, Hage JJ, VanDiest PJ, Bleomena E, Mulder JW. Short-term and long-term histologic effects of castration and estrogen treatment on breast tissue of 14 male-to-female transsexuals in comparison with two chemically castrated men. Am J Surg Pathol. 2000;24:74–80.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khan HN, Rampaul R, Blamey RW. Management of physiological gynecomastia with tamoxifen. Breast. 2004;13:61–5.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinberg DL. Role of IGF-I in normal mammary development. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1998;47(3):201–8.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kley HK, Niederau C, Stremmel W, Lax R, Strohmeyer G, Kruskemper HL. Conversion of androgens to estrogens in idiopathic hemochromatosis: comparison with alcoholic liver cirrhosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985;61(1):1–6.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lanfranco F, Kamischke A, Zitzmann M, Nieschlag E. Klinefelter’s syndrome. Lancet. 2004;364:273–83.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence SE, Faught KA, Vethamuthu J, Lawson ML. Beneficial effects of raloxifene and tamoxifen in the treatment of pubertal gynecomastia. J Pediatr. 2004;145(1):71–6.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mathur R, Braunstein GD. Gynecomastia: pathomechanisms and treatment strategies. Horm Res. 1997;48:95–102.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nahta R, Hortobagyi GN, Esteva FJ. Growth factor receptors in breast cancer: potential for therapeutic intervention. Oncologist. 2003;8(1):5–17.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicolis GL, Modlinger RS, Gabrilove JL. A study of the histopathology of human gynecomastia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1971;32:173–8.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nuttall FQ. Gynecomastia as a physical finding in normal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1979;48:338–40.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nydick M, Bustos J, Dale Jr JH, Rawson RW. Gynecomastia in adolescent boys. JAMA. 1961;178:449–54.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perdona S, Autorino R, De Placido S, D’Armiento M, Gallo A, Damiano R, et al. Efficacy of tamoxifen and radiotherapy for prevention and treatment of gynaecomastia and breast pain caused by bicalutamide in prostate cancer: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2005;6(5):295–300.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peres R, Betsholtz C, Westermark B, Heldin CH. Frequent expression of growth factors for mesenchymal cells in human mammary carcinoma cell lines. Cancer Res. 1987;47:3425–9.

    CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ridgway EC, Maloof F, Longcope C. Androgen and estrogen dynamics in hyperthyroidism. J Endocrinol. 1982;95:105–15.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sasano H, Kimura M, Shizawa S, Kimura N, Nagura H. Aromatase and steroid receptors in gynecomastia and male breast carcinoma: an immunohistochemical study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:3063–7.

    CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smyth CM, Bremner WJ. Klinefelter syndrome. Arch Intern Med. 1998;12:1309–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart AJ, Johnson MD, May FEB, Westley BR. Role of insulin-like growth factors and the type I insulin-like growth factor receptor in the estrogen-stimulated proliferation of human breast cancer cells. J Biolumin Chemilumin. 1990;265:21172–8.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swerdlow AJ, Schoemaker MJ, Higgins CD, Write AF, Jacobs PA. Cancer incidence and mortality in men with Klinefelter syndrome: a cohort study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97(16):1204–10.

    Article PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ting ACW, Chow LWC, Leung YF. Comparison of tamoxifen with danazol in the management of idiopathic gynecomastia. Am Surg. 2000;66:38–40.

    CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Poppel H, Tyrrell CJ, Haustermans K, Van Cangh P, Keuppens F, Colombeau P, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of radiotherapy as treatment for bicalutamide-induced gynaecomastia and breast pain in prostate cancer. Eur Urol. 2005;47:587–92.

    Article CAS PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India

    Sweety Agrawal MD & Mohd Ashraf Ganie MD, DM

  2. Department of Geriatric Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India

    Sobia Nisar MD

Authors
  1. Sweety Agrawal MD
  2. Mohd Ashraf Ganie MD, DM
  3. Sobia Nisar MD

Corresponding author

Correspondence toMohd Ashraf Ganie MD, DM.

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Reproductive Biology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India

    Anand Kumar

  2. Department of Reproductive Biology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India

    Mona Sharma

Rights and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Agrawal, S., Ganie, M.A., Nisar, S. (2017). Gynaecomastia. In: Kumar, A., Sharma, M. (eds) Basics of Human Andrology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3695-8_26

Download citation

Keywords

Publish with us

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save

Springer+
from ¥17,985 /Month
  • Starting from 10 chapters or articles per month
  • Access and download chapters and articles from more than 300k books and 2,500 journals
  • Cancel anytime
View plans

Buy Now

Chapter
JPY 3498
Price includes VAT (Japan)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
JPY 10295
Price includes VAT (Japan)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
JPY 12869
Price includes VAT (Japan)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide -see info
Hardcover Book
JPY 18589
Price includes VAT (Japan)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide -see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only


[8]ページ先頭

©2009-2026 Movatter.jp