Numeric and Mathematical Modules¶

The modules described in this chapter provide numeric and math-related functionsand data types. Thenumbers module defines an abstract hierarchy ofnumeric types. Themath andcmath modules contain variousmathematical functions for floating-point and complex numbers. For users moreinterested in decimal accuracy than in speed, thedecimal module supportsexact representations of decimal numbers.

The following modules are documented in this chapter:

• numbers — Numeric abstract base classes
  • The numeric tower
  • Notes for type implementors
    • Adding More Numeric ABCs
    • Implementing the arithmetic operations

• math — Mathematical functions

• cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
  • Complex coordinates
  • cmath functions

• decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic
  • Quick-start Tutorial
  • Decimal objects
    • Logical operands
  • Context objects
  • Signals
  • Floating Point Notes
    • Mitigating round-off error with increased precision
    • Special values
  • Working with threads
  • Recipes
  • Decimal FAQ

• fractions — Rational numbers

• random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

• itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
  • Itertool functions
  • Examples
  • Recipes

• functools — Higher order functions and operations on callable objects
  • partial Objects

• operator — Standard operators as functions
  • Mapping Operators to Functions