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The Java Virtual Machine Specification

Second Edition

Tim Lindholm
Frank Yellin



1.1 A Bit of History
1.2 The Java Virtual Machine
1.3 Summary of Chapters
1.4 Notation

2.1 Unicode
2.2 Identifiers
2.3 Literals
2.4 Types and Values
2.4.1 Primitive Types and Values2.4.2 Operators on Integral Values
2.4.3 Floating-Point Types, Value Sets, and Values
2.4.4 Operators on Floating-Point Values
2.4.5 Operators onboolean Values
2.4.6 Reference Types, Objects, and Reference Values
2.4.7 The ClassObject
2.4.8 The ClassString
2.4.9 Operators on Objects
2.5 Variables
2.5.1 Initial Values of Variables
2.5.2 Variables Have Types, Objects Have Classes
2.6 Conversions and Promotions
2.6.1 Identity Conversions
2.6.2 Widening Primitive Conversions
2.6.3 Narrowing Primitive Conversions
2.6.4 Widening Reference Conversions
2.6.5 Narrowing Reference Conversions
2.6.6 Value Set Conversion
2.6.7 Assignment Conversion
2.6.8 Method Invocation Conversion
2.6.9 Casting Conversion
2.6.10 Numeric Promotion
2.7 Names and Packages
2.7.1 Simple Names and Qualified Names
2.7.2 Packages
2.7.3 Members
2.7.4 Qualified Names and Access Control
2.7.5 Fully Qualified Names
2.8 Classes
2.8.1 Class Names
2.8.2 Class Modifiers
2.8.3 Superclasses and Subclasses
2.8.4 The Class Members
2.9 Fields
2.9.1 Field Modifiers
2.9.2 Initialization of Fields
2.10 Methods
2.10.1 Formal Parameters
2.10.2 Method Signature
2.10.3 Method Modifiers
2.11 Static Initializers
2.12 Constructors
2.12.1 Constructor Modifiers
2.13 Interfaces
2.13.1 Interface Modifiers
2.13.2 Superinterfaces
2.13.3 Interface Members
2.13.4 Overriding, Inheritance, and Overloading in Interfaces
2.14 Nested Classes and Interfaces
2.15 Arrays
2.15.1 Array Types
2.15.2 Array Variables
2.15.3 Array Creation
2.15.4 Array Access
2.16 Exceptions
2.16.1 The Causes of Exceptions
2.16.2 Handling an Exception
2.16.3 The Exception Hierarchy
2.16.4 The Classes Exception and RuntimeException
2.17 Execution
2.17.1 Virtual Machine Start-up
2.17.2 Loading
2.17.3 Linking: Verification, Preparation, and Resolution
2.17.4 Initialization
2.17.5 Detailed Initialization Procedure
2.17.6 Creation of New Class Instances
2.17.7 Finalization of Class Instances
2.17.8 Unloading of Classes and Interfaces
2.17.9 Virtual Machine Exit
2.18 FP-strict Expressions
2.19 Threads

3.1 Theclass File Format
3.2 Data Types
3.3 Primitive Types and Values
3.3.1 Integral Types and Values
3.3.2 Floating-Point Types, Value Sets, and Values
3.3.3 ThereturnAddress Type and Values
3.3.4 Theboolean Type
3.4 Reference Types and Values
3.5 Runtime Data Areas
3.5.1 Thepc Register
3.5.2 Java Virtual Machine Stacks
3.5.3 Heap
3.5.4 Method Area
3.5.5 Runtime Constant Pool
3.5.6 Native Method Stacks
3.6 Frames
3.6.1 Local Variables
3.6.2 Operand Stacks
3.6.3 Dynamic Linking
3.6.4 Normal Method Invocation Completion
3.6.5 Abrupt Method Invocation Completion
3.6.6 Additional Information
3.7 Representation of Objects
3.8 Floating-Point Arithmetic
3.8.1 Java Virtual Machine Floating-Point Arithmetic and IEEE 754
3.8.2 Floating-Point Modes
3.8.3 Value Set Conversion
3.9 Specially Named Initialization Methods
3.10 Exceptions
3.11 Instruction Set Summary
3.11.1 Types and the Java Virtual Machine
3.11.2 Load and Store Instructions
3.11.3 Arithmetic Instructions
3.11.4 Type Conversion Instructions
3.11.5 Object Creation and Manipulation
3.11.6 Operand Stack Management Instructions
3.11.7 Control Transfer Instructions
3.11.8 Method Invocation and Return Instructions
3.11.9 Throwing Exceptions
3.11.10 Implementing finally
3.11.11 Synchronization
3.12 Class Libraries
3.13 Public Design, Private Implementation

4.1 TheClassFile Structure
4.2 The Internal Form of Fully Qualified Class and Interface Names
4.3 Descriptors
4.3.1 Grammar Notation
4.3.2 Field Descriptors
4.3.3 Method Descriptors
4.4 The Constant Pool
4.4.1 TheCONSTANT_Class_info Structure
4.4.2 TheCONSTANT_Fieldref_info,CONSTANT_Methodref_info, andCONSTANT_InterfaceMethodref_info Structures
4.4.3 TheCONSTANT_String_info Structure
4.4.4 TheCONSTANT_Integer_info andCONSTANT_Float_info Structures
4.4.5 TheCONSTANT_Long_info andCONSTANT_Double_info Structures
4.4.6 TheCONSTANT_NameAndType_info Structure
4.4.7 TheCONSTANT_Utf8_info Structure
4.5 Fields
4.6 Methods
4.7 Attributes
4.7.1 Defining and Naming New Attributes
4.7.2 TheConstantValue Attribute
4.7.3 TheCode Attribute
4.7.4 TheExceptions Attribute
4.7.5 TheInnerClasses Attribute
4.7.6 TheSynthetic Attribute
4.7.7 TheSourceFile Attribute
4.7.8 TheLineNumberTable Attribute
4.7.9 TheLocalVariableTable Attribute
4.7.10 TheDeprecated Attribute
4.8 Constraints on Java Virtual Machine Code
4.8.1 Static Constraints
4.8.2 Structural Constraints
4.9 Verification ofclass Files
4.9.1 The Verification Process
4.9.2 The Bytecode Verifier
4.9.3 Values of Typeslong anddouble
4.9.4 Instance Initialization Methods and Newly Created Objects
4.9.5 Exception Handlers
4.9.6 Exceptions and finally
4.10 Limitations of the Java Virtual Machine

5.1 The Runtime Constant Pool
5.2 Virtual Machine Start-up
5.3 Creation and Loading
5.3.1 Loading Using the Bootstrap Class Loader
5.3.2 Loading Using a User-defined Class Loader
5.3.3 Creating Array Classes
5.3.4 Loading Constraints
5.3.5 Deriving a Class from aclass File Representation
5.4 Linking
5.4.1 Verification
5.4.2 Preparation
5.4.3 Resolution
5.4.4 Access Control
5.5 Initialization
5.6 Binding Native Method Implementations

6.1 Assumptions: The Meaning of "Must"
6.2 Reserved Opcodes
6.3 Virtual Machine Errors
6.4 Format of Instruction Descriptions

7.1 Format of Examples
7.2 Use of Constants, Local Variables, and Control Constructs
7.3 Arithmetic
7.4 Accessing the Runtime Constant Pool
7.5 More Control Examples
7.6 Receiving Arguments
7.7 Invoking Methods
7.8 Working with Class Instances
7.9 Arrays
7.10 Compiling Switches
7.11 Operations on the Operand Stack
7.12 Throwing and Handling Exceptions
7.13 Compilingfinally
7.14 Synchronization
7.15 Compiling Nested Classes and Interfaces

8.1 Terminology and Framework
8.2 Execution Order and Consistency
8.3 Rules About Variables
8.4 Nonatomic Treatment ofdouble andlong Variables
8.5 Rules About Locks
8.6 Rules About the Interaction of Locks and Variables
8.7 Rules forvolatile Variables
8.8 Prescient Store Operations
8.9 Discussion
8.10 Example: Possible Swap
8.11 Example: Out-of-Order Writes
8.12 Threads
8.13 Locks and Synchronization
8.14 Wait Sets and Notification

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Virtual Machine Specification
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