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	`c.2852 BC - c.2070 BC Legendary Era of the Three Sovereigns and Five` `Emperors.` `c.2698 BC` `-c.2598 BC` `Rule of the legendary Yellow Emperor,Huang-ti` `(Huang-ti)Gongsun Xuanyuan (Kung-sunHsüan-yüan).` `c.1915 BC - c.1555` `BC Xia (Hsia) semi-mythicaldynasty` `rules.` `c.1555 BC - May 1046 BC Shang (Shang), also known as Yin (Yin), state.` `May 1046 BC - 741 BC (Western) Zhou (Chou) state, capital at Haojing` `(Hao-ching).` `741 BC - 256 BC (Eastern) Zhou (Chou) state, capital at Chengzhou` `(Ch'eng-chou).` `551 BC - 479 BC Lifetime of the philosopher Kong Qiu (K'ung Ch'iu),` `called Kongzi` `(K'ung Tzu)(= Master Kong, and` `Latinized as 'Confucius').` `c.476 BC - 22 Dec 221 BC Era of the Warring States, disintegration of the` `Zhou (Chou) state. ThemainSevenWarring` `states` `were: Qin (Ch'in), Han (Han)(403-220), Wei (Wei)` `(403-225), Zhao (Chao)(403-222), Qi (Ch'i), Chu` `(Ch'u), and Yan (Yen) alongside the the Zhou king's` `land.` `c.470BC` `- c.391 BC Lifetime of the philosopher Mozi (Mo Tzu),` `(= Master Mo, Latinized` `as'Micius').` `22 Dec 221 BC` `Ying Zheng` `(Ying Cheng)King of Qin (Ch'in) having` `conquered allhisrivals, assumedimperial status` `asShi Huangdi (Shih Huang-ti)(b. 259 BC - d. 210` `BC). He rules as the first Emperor` `of Qin (Ch'in)` `until 10 Sep 210 BC.` `22 Dec 221 BC - Oct 207 BC Qin (Ch'in) state (Qin was spelled in Sanskrit as` `Cina, and later Latinized as 'China' in English).` `28 Feb 202 BC-10 Jan 9 AD` `Han (Han) state.` `10 Jan 9 AD - 6 Oct 23 AD Xin (Hsin)` `state, usurper Wang Mang (b. c.45 BC -` `d. 23 AD) interrupts the Han state.` `11 Mar 23 - 25 Nov 220 Han (Han) state (restored).` `10 Dec 220 - 10 Jul 420 Era of disunity under Warlords. China is not unified` `under any one power. Huns, Turks and other nomadic` `tribes invade the northern regions. The 220 - 280` `era is also called the "Era of Three Kingdoms."` `10 Dec 220 - 4 Feb 266 Wei (Wei), declaredin the center north (called Cao` `Wei [Ts'ao Wei], i.e. empire of Wei ruled by the` `family of Cao, by historians to avoid confusion` `other Chinese polities named "Wei").15 May 221-Dec 263/Jan 264 Hanstate (restored) in the southwest.` `(called Shu` `Han to define the re-established` `empireofHan` `on` `part of` `its former territory, historically` `referred to as "Shu"). Defeat and occupation` `occurred in the eleventh month of the lunar year` `(18 Dec 263 - 15 Jan 264) by Cao Wei.Nov/Dec 222 - 1 May 280 Wu (Wu) state` `at Wuchang (Wu-ch'ang)(now Ezhou` `[O-chou], Hubei) in` `south, a vassal ruler of Cao` `Wei proclaims a separate reign, acceded to the` `imperial throne 23 May 229 (called "Sun Wu"or` `"Dong Wu" to avoid confusion with otherChinese` `states named Wu).` `8 Feb 266 - 11 Dec 316 (Western) Jin (Chin) state at Luoyang (Lo-yang).` `6 Apr 317 - 20 Dec 403 (Eastern) Jin (Chin) state at Jiankang (Chien-` `k'ang)(now Nanjing).` `20 Feb 386 - 21 Aug 534 (Northern)` `Wei (Wei)(named Dai [Tai]), a vassal` `of Jin, to May/Jun 386) state in northern China.` `1 Jan 404 - 19 Jun 404 (Southern) Chu (Ch'u) state at Jiankang (Chien-` `k'ang)(now Nanjing).` `21 Jun 404 - 5 Jul 420 (Eastern) Jin (Chin) state (restored).` `10 Jul 420 - 10 Feb 589 Division into Northern and Southern dynasties.` `10 Jul 420 - 27 May 479 (Southern) Song (Sung) at Jiankang (now Nanjing).` `29 May 479 - 20 Apr 502 (Southern) Qi (Ch'i) at Jiankang (now Nanjing).` `30 Apr 502 - 12 Nov 557` `(Southern) Liang (Liang) at Jiankang (now Nanjing).` `21 Aug 534 - 14 Feb 557 (Western) Wei state at Chang'an (now Xi'an).` `18 Nov 534 - 7 Jun550 (Eastern) Wei state at Ye (Yeh)(now Handan` `[Han-tan], Hebei [Ho-pei]).` `9 Jun 550 - 22 Feb 577` `(Northern) Qi (Ch'i) state at Ye (Yeh)(now Handan,` `[Han-tan], inHebei [Ho-pei]).` `spring 555 - 26 Oct 587` `(Western) Wei at Jingzhou (Ching-chou)(former` `Jiangling [Chiang-ling], Hubei)` `15 Feb 557 - 4 Mar 581` `(Northern)Zhou (Chou) state at Chang'an (Ch'ang-` `an)(modern Xi'an [Hsi-an]).` `16 Nov 557 - 12 Feb 589` `Chen (Ch'en) state at Jiankang (Chien-k'ang)` `(modern Nanjing).` `4 Mar 581 - 23 May 619 Sui (Sui) state (Zheng[Cheng] resistance` `continues` `at Luoyang [Lo-yang]to` `4 Jun 621).` `18 Jun 618 – 16 Oct 690 Tang (T'ang) statein Chang'an (now Xi'an [Hsi-an]).` `16 Oct 690 - 22 Feb 705 Zhou (Chou)` `state` `(called "Wu Zhou" or "Southern` `Zhou"by historians)under China's only female` `Emperor Wu Zhao (Wu Chao), posthumous name Wu Zetian` `(Wu Tse-t'ien), (b. 624 - d. 705).` `23 Feb 705 - 1 Jun 907 Tang (T'ang)(restored)(proclaimed 3 Mar 705).` `27 Feb 907 - 4 Jan 1123 Great Liao (Da Liao [Ta Liao])(called the Khitan` `Empire by historians).Northern Liao (officially` `Great Liao) rule from Xijin Fu (Hsi-chin Fu)` `1122-1123, whilein 1123 the Jurchens capture the` `Liaocapital ofQingzhong (Ch'ing-chung)(south of` `present-day Hohhot).LiaoEmperor Tianzuo is` `captured by theJin` `26 Mar1125 ending Great Liao` `dynasty.Liaoremnants continue 1124 -1218 in` `western China` `and Central Asia (called the` `"Western Liao" or "Qara Khitai" by historians).` `12 May907 - 3 Feb 960 Collapse of central authority, called the "Era of` `Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms" by historians.` `1` `Jun 907 - 18 Nov 932 Great Liang (Da Liang [Ta Liang])state, (called` `"Later Liang" by historians);` `proclaimed in` `Bianzhou (Pien-chou)(now Kaifeng [K'ai-feng] in` `Henan) on 5 Jun 907.` `13 May 923 - 11 Jan 937 Great Tang (Da Tang[Ta T'ang])(called the "Later` `Tang" by historians), proclaimed in Weizhou` `(Wei-chou)(now nearDaming [Ta-ming], Hebei) on` `13 May 923.` `18 Nov 932` `Great Liang` `collapses after military defeat by` `the armies of the (Later) Tang.` `28 Nov 936 - 10 Jan 947 Great Jin (Da Jin` `[Ta Chin])state, (called "Later` `Jin" by historians),` `is proclaimed at a public` `ceremony either in Jinyang (Chin-yang)(now` `Taiyuan [T'ai-yüan], Shanxi) or in Liulin` `(Liu-lin).` `11 Jan 937 Great Tang (T'ang) collapses after military defeat` `by the armies of the (Later) Jin (Chin).17 Dec 938 - 4 Jan 1123 Great Liao (Da Liao [Ta Liao]) rules North China` `and Mongolia; called Khitan (Qidan [Ch'i-tan])` `or Great Khitan (Da Qidan [Ta Ch'i-tan]) state` `bf.937-17 Dec 938 and Great Khitan 983-1066). The` `"Jurchen Jin" capture the five capitals of Liao:` `Eastern Capital in 1116, Supreme Capital 1120,` `Central Capital 1122, and Western Capital 1122.` `The Southern Capital, also called Yanjing` `(Yen-ching)(modern Beijing), is captured on 31` `Dec 1122 and the Jurchen ruler entered it on` `4 Jan 1123. Former Liao ruler Yelü Yanxi (Yeh-lü` `Yen-shi)(b. 1075 - d. 1156) continues in rebellion` `in various part of Liao until capture by "Jurchen` `Jin" on 26 Mar 1125.10 Jan 947 Great Jin (Chin) collapses following the occupation` `of the capital of Kaifeng by a belligerent force.` `5 Jul 947 - 2 Jan 951 Great Han (Da Han[Ta Han])(also called "Later Han"` `by historians),proclaimed in Kaifeng (K'ai-feng).` `2 Jan 951 Great Han collapsed following the assassination of` `its last emperor, and then the occupation of` `the capital of Kaifeng (K'ai-feng) by invading` `army of the (Later) Zhou (Chou) on 3 Jan 951.` `A` `remnant Han state regroups 9 Feb 951-979 as` `Northern Han kingdom (also called Eastern Han) at` `Taiyuan (T'ai-yüan).` `13 Feb 951 - 3 Feb 960 Great Zhou (Da Zhou[Ta Chou]) state, (called the` `"Later Zhou" by historians), proclaimed in Kaifeng` `(K'ai-feng) on 13 Feb 951.` `3 Feb 960 Great Zhou (Chou) collapses after its last emperor` `vacated the throne and the establishment of` `Song is proclaimed.` `4 Feb 960 - 9 Jan 1127 Song (Sung) stateis proclaimed at public ceremonies` `in Kaifeng` `(K'ai-feng).` `10 Nov 1038 - 28 Aug 1227 Great Xia (Da Xia [TaHsia]), officially the White` `High Great Xia State (Bai Gao Da Xia Guo), at` `Xingqing (Hsin-ch'ing)(Yinchuan [Yin-ch'uan])` `(called` `the "Western Xia" or "Tangut" state by` `historians).` `28 Jan 1115 - 30 May 1233` `Great Jin (Chin)(DaJin` `[Ta Chin])in northern` `China (also called "Jurchen Jin" to differentiate` `it from an earlier Jin state). Kaifeng(K'ai-` `feng)captured by the Mongols 30 May 1233 and on` `9 Feb 1234 the Mongols destroy remnants of the` `Great Jin at Caizhou (Ts'ai-chou).` `9 Jan 1127 Songcollapses following the occupation of the` `capital Kaifeng by` `invadingJin (Chin) forces.` `20 Apr 1127 - 12 Jun 1127 Great Chu (Da Chu` `[Ta` `Ch'u])` `establishedwith` `Zhang Bangchang(Chang Pang-ch'ang)(b. 1081 - d.` `1127) as emperor by the support of the Jin.` `12 Jun 1127 - 21 Feb 1276 Song (Sung) (restored).` `18 Dec 1271 - 14 Sep 1368 Great Yuan (Da Yuan``[``Ta Yüan``]``) founded by Mongols.` `21 Feb 1276 Song (Sung) governmentceases to function` `by` `imperial edict, pending the occupation of the` `capital of Lin'an (now Hangzhou [Hang-chou]) by` `the invading army of Yuan. Songremnants continue` `resistance in Fujian (Fu-chien) and Guangdong` `(Kuang-tung) 14 Jun 1276 -19 Mar 1279.` `19 Mar 1279` `Yuan` `defeatsthe lastremnant` `of` `Song forces at` `Battle of Yamen (Ya-men)(Naval Battle of Mount Ya)` `23 Jan 1368 Great Ming (Da Ming[Ta Ming]) state proclaimed` `at public ceremonies in Nanjing (Nan-ching)` `prefecture of Yingtian (Ying-t'ien)(now in city` `of Shangqiu [Shang-ch'iu], Henan).Taking Dadu` `(Khanbaliq) on 14 Sep 1368, Shangdu in 1369, and` `Yingchang in 1370.` `17 Feb 1616 Nurhaci forms the Jurchen clans into aunified` `polity as the Great Jin (``Da J``in` `[Ta Chin])` `(referred to by historians "Later Jin"). In 1635,` `Hong Taiji (Hung T'ai-chi) renamed the Jurchen` `people and the Jurchen language, "Manchu."` `15 May 1636 Great Qing (Da Qing``[``Ta Ch'ing``]; in ManchuDaicing)` `proclaimed in Shengjing (Cheng-ching)/Shenyang` `(Shen-yang)(taking Beijing [Pei-ching] on 6 Jun` `1644, andNanjing [Nan-ching] on 6 Jun 1645).` `8 Feb 1644 - 1646 Great Shun (Da Shun [Ta Shun]) proclaimed at Xi'an` `by rebel Li Zicheng (Li Tzu-ch'eng)(b. 1606 - d.` `1645), takingthe capital Shuntian (Shun-t'ien)` `on 25 Apr 1644.` `25 Apr 1644 Ming polity collapses following the occupationof` `the capital, Shuntian (Shun-t'ien)(now Beijing` `[Pei-ching]), byforces of Li Zicheng` `(s.a.).` `Mingelements remain` `in dissidence inSouthern China` `until defeat by theQing inJan 1659.` `28 May 1858 Left-bank of the Amur River annexed by Russia.` `14 Nov 1860 Right-bank of the Amur River, below the Ussuri` `junction, annexed` `by Russia.` `4 Jul 1871 - Feb 1881 Russia occupies Ghulja (Ili basin) region.` `2 Jun 1895 - 25 Oct 1945 Taiwan annexed by Japan.` `14 Jul 1900 - 7 Sep 1901 France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, U.K., U.S.,` `and Austria-Hungary occupy Tientsin (Tianjin)` `(14 Jul 1900) and Peking (Beijing)(15 Aug 1901)` `and other areas during the anti-colonial "Boxer` `Rebellion" (Yihetuan Yundong [I-ho-t'uan Yün-tung]` `literally "Militia United in Righteousness")` `2 Nov 1899 - 7 Sep 1901.` `10 Oct 1911 Revolution begins against the imperial government.` `3 Dec 1911 Republic of China (Zhonghua minguo [Chung-hua` `min-kuo]).` `12 Feb 1912` `Abdication of the last Emperor proclaimed in` `Beijing.` `Jan 1913 - 7 Oct 1951 Tibet de facto independent.` `1 Dec 1911 OuterMongolia` `declares independence.` `1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917 Empire of Great Qing(Da Qing diguo[``Ta Ch'ing` `ti-kuo``]), proclaiming restoration of monarchy.` `19 Feb 1920 - 3 Feb 1921 Mongolia briefly re-incorporated.` `18 Sep 1931 - 15 Aug 1945 Japanese occupyManchuria` `(seeManchukuo).` `7 Nov 1931 - 22 Sep 1937 Communists declare theSoviet Republic of China.` `12 Nov 1933 - 6 Feb 1934 East Turkestan revolts and 12 Nov 1944-16 Jun 1946.` `Aug 1937 - Sep 1945 Japanese occupation of Northeast China, Hainan,` `Yellow River Valley and most of the coastal area.` `1 Oct 1949 People's Republic of China (Zhonghua renmin` `gongheguo[Chung-huajen-min kung-ho-kuo]).` `8 Dec 1949 Remnants of the Nationalist Republic of China` `forces evacuate toTaiwan.` `1 Jul 1997 Re-integration of the former British colony` `ofHong Kong.` `20 Dec 1999 Re-integration of the former Portuguese colony` `ofMacau.`



1912) Rebellions



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Transliteration note:Names are given in Hanyu Pinyinromanization, without tone-marking diacritics(the first edition of Hanyu Pinyin was approved and adopted byChinaon 11 Feb 1958).Beginning in the early 1980's, Western publications began using the Hanyu Pinyin romanization system instead of earlier romanization systems.Prior to 1979, names are given in the older Wade-Giles romanization in parentheses, i.e. Li Yuanhong (Li Yüan-hung). For the period 1912-1948, common bynames and nicknames are listed in quotes i.e. "Sun Yat-sen."

	Li Chung-t'ang Yüeh] (Tune of Li Zhongtang
Peking] (Ming: Nanjing 1368-1421, 1644-45, Beijing 1421-1644; Qing: Shengjing 1636-1644)

Note: Emperors(huangdi [huang-ti]) arelisted by their personal name (ming [ming]) followed by their temple name(miaohao[miao-hao])(comparable with a regnal name, but formally assigned only after the reign). Followed by [the short form of] the posthumous praise name(shi[shih]) and the era name(s)(nianhao [nien-hao])adopted during the reign. Short-lived or deposed emperors, especially minors, were not normally given a temple(miaohao[miao-hao])or aposthumouspraise name(shi [shih]). Though the 'era names'(nianhao) are not strictly names of the ruler, but of a given year, they are - in 'Western' sources in particular - commonly used as indirect references of the emperors in question (i.e., the 'Qianlong Emperor', not 'Emperor Qianlong').

Emperors(Huangdi/Huang-ti)-Ming- 19 Jul 1572 - 18 Aug 1620 Zhu Yijun (Chu I-chün) (b. 1563 - d. 1620) miaohao: Shenzong (Shen-tsung)/shi: Xian huangdi(Hsien huang-ti) nianhao 2 Feb 1573 - 27 Aug 1620: Wanli (Wan-li)28 Aug 1620 - 28 Sep 1620 Zhu Changluo (b. 1582 - d. 1620) miaohao: Guangzong (Kuang-tsung)/shi: Zhen huangdi(Chen huang-ti) nianhao 28 Aug 1620 - 21 Jan 1621: Taichang (T'ai-ch'ang) 1 Oct 1620 - 30 Sep 1627 Zhu Youjiao (Chu Yu-chiao) (b. 1605 - d. 1627) miaohao: Xizong (Hsi-tsung)/shi: Zhe huangdi(Che huang-ti) nianhao 22 Jan 1621 - 4 Feb 1628: Tianqi (T'ien-ch'i) 2 Oct 1627 - 25 Apr 1644 Zhu Youjian (Chu Yu-chien) (b. 1611 - d. 1644) miaohao: Sizong (Szu-tsung)/shi: Lie huangdi(Lieh huang-ti) nianhao 5 Feb 1628 - 25 Apr 1644: Chongzhen (Ch'ung-chen)-Shun - 8 Feb 1644 - 1645 Li Zicheng (Li Tzu-ch'eng) (b. 1606 - d. 1645) (in rebellion, 1642 starting in Xiangfan, 25 Apr 1644in Beijing) nianhao 8 Feb 1644 - 5 Jun 1644: Yongchang (Yung-ch'ang) -(Southern) Ming - 1644 - Jun 1645 Zhu Yousong (Chu Yu-sung) (b. 1607 - d. 1646) (in dissidence, in Southern China) miaohao: Anzong (An-tsung)/shi: Jian huangdi (Chien huang-ti) nianhao 1645: Hongguang (Hung-kuang) 21 Jul 1645 – 6 Oct 1646 Zhu Yujian (Chu Yü-chien) (b. 1602 - d. 1646) (in dissidence, in Fuzhou) miaohao: Shaozong (Shao-tsung)/shi: Xiang huangdi (Hsiang huang-ti) nianhaoAug 1645 – Oct 1646: Longwu (Lung-wu) Dec 1646 – Jan 1647 Zhu Yuyue (ChuYü-yüeh) (b. 1605? - d. 1647) (indissidence, in Guangzhou) miaohao: Wenzong (Wen-tsung) nianhaoDec 1646 – Jan 1647: Shaowu (Shao-wu) 24 Dec 1646 -Jan 1659 Zhu Youlang (Chu Yu-lang) (b. 1624 - d. 1662) (in dissidence, in Southern China and Yunnan) miaohao: Zhaozong (Chao-tsung)/shi: Kuang huangdi (K'uang huang-ti) nianhao24 Dec 1646 - 1 Jun 1662: Yongli (Yung-li) -(Later) Jin- 17 Feb 1616 - 30 Sep 1626 Nurhachi (Nu-erh-ha-ch'ih) (b. 1559 - d. 1626) miaohao: Taizu (T'ai-tsu)/shi: Gao huangdi(Kao huang-ti) nianhao 17 Feb 1616 - 15 Feb 1627: Tianming (T'ien-ming)20 Oct 1626 - 15 May 1636 Hong Taiji (Hung T'ai-chi) (b. 1592 - d. 1643) miaohao: Taizong (T'ai-tsung)/shi: Wen huangdi (Wen huang-ti) nianhao 16 Feb 1627 - 14 May 1636: Tiancong (T'ien-ts'ung) -Qing-15 May 1636 - 21 Sep 1643 Hong Taiji (Hung T'ai-chi) (s.a.) miaohao: Taizong (T'ai-tsung)/shi: Wen huangdi(Wen huang-ti) nianhao15 May 1636 - 7 Feb 1644: Chongde (Ch'ung-te) 8 Oct 1643 - 5 Feb 1661 Fulin (Fu-lin) (b. 1638 - d. 1661) miaohao: Shizu (Shih-tsu)/shi: Zhang huangdi(Chang huang-ti) nianhao 8 Feb 1644 - 18 Feb 1662: Shunzhi (Shun-chih) 8 Oct 1643 - 31 Dec 1650 Regents - Duoergun, Prince Rui (b. 1612 - d. 1650) (To-erh-kun, Prince Jui) - Jierhalang, Prince Zheng (b. 1599 - d. 1655) (Chi-erh-ha-lang, Prince Cheng) (to 1647) - Duoduo, Prince Yu (b. 1614 - d. 1649) (To-to, Prince Yü) (1647 - 29 Apr 1649) 7 Feb 1661 - 20 Dec 1722 Xuanye (Hsüan-yeh) (b. 1654 - d. 1722) miaohao: Shengzu (Sheng-tsu)/shi: Ren huangdi(Jen huang-ti) nianhao 18 Feb 1662 - 4 Feb 1723: Kangxi (K'ang-hsi) 7 Feb 1661 - May 1669 Regents - Sukesaha (Su-k'o-sa-ha)(to 1667) (d. 1667) - Suoni (So-ni) (to 12 Aug 1667) (b. 1601 - d. 1667) - Aobai (Ao-pai) (b. 1600 - d. 1669) - Ebilong (O-pi-lung) (to 1667) (d. 1673) 10 Jul 1706 - 1707 Wei Zhiye (Wei Chih-yeh)(in rebellion) nianhao10 Jul 1706 - 1707: Wenxing(Wen-hsing)1707 - 1708 Zhu Cihuan (Chu Tz'u-huan) (b. 1633 - d. 1708) (styledDing wang, claiming to head the Great Ming Realm,in rebellion)26 May 1721 - 30 Jul 1721 Zhu Yigui (Chu I-kuei) (b. 1689/90 - d. 1721) (in rebellion, rules almost exclusively onTaiwan) nianhao 26 May 1721 - 30 Jul 1721: Yonghe(Yung-ho)27 Dec 1722 - 8 Oct 1735 Yinzhen (Yin-chen) (b. 1678 - d. 1735) miaohao: Shizong (Shih-tsung)/shi: Xian huangdi(Hsien huang-ti) nianhao5 Feb 1723 - 11 Feb 1746: Yongzheng (Yung-cheng)18 Oct 1735 - 9 Feb 1796 Hongli (Hung-li) (b. 1711 - d. 1799) niaohao: Gaozong (Kao-tsung)/shi: Chun huangdi(Ch'un huang-ti) nianhao 12 Feb 1736 - 8 Feb 1796: Qianlong (Ch'ien-lung)Dec 1786 - 10 Feb 1788 Lin Shuangwen (Lin Shuang-wen) (b. 1756 - d. 1788) (in rebellion, rules almost exclusively on Taiwan) nianhao Dec 1786 - 10 Feb 1788: Shuntian(Shun-t'ien) 9 Feb 1796 - 2 Sep 1820 Yongyan (Yung-yen) (b. 1760 - d. 1820) niaohao: Renzong (Jen-tsung)/shi: Rui huangdi(Jui huang-ti) nianhao 9 Feb 1796 - 2 Feb 1821: Jiaqing (Chia-ch'ing)Mar 1797 - 1797 Li Shu (Li Shu) (in rebellion) nianhaoMar 1797 - 1797: Daqing(Ta-ch'ing) 3 Oct 1820 - 25 Feb 1850 Minning (Min-ning) (b. 1782 - d. 1850) niaohao: Xuanzong (Hsüan-tsung)/shi: Cheng huangdi(Ch'eng huang-ti) nianhao3 Feb 1821 - 31 Jan 1851: Daoguang (Tao-kuang) 9 Mar 1850 - 22 Aug 1861 Yizhu (I Chu) (b. 1831 - d. 1861) miaohao: Wenzong (Wen-tsung)/shi: Xian huangdi(Hsien huang-ti) nianhao 1 Feb 1851 - 29 Jan 1862: Xianfeng (Hsien-feng)21 Aug 1861 - 2 Nov 1861 Regency(imperial assistants in national affairs) - Zaiyuan, Prince Yi (b. 1816 - d. 1861) (Tsai-yüan, Prince Yi) - Duanhua, Prince Zheng (b. 1807 - d. 1861) (Tuan-hua, Prince Cheng) - Sushun (Su-shun) (b. 1816 - d. 1861) - Jingshou (Ching-shou) (b. 1829 - d. 1889) - Muyin (Mu-yin) (d. 1864) - Kuangyuan (K'uang-yüan) (b. 1815 - d. 1881) - Du Han (Tu Han) (b. 1806 - d. 1866) - Jiao Youying (Chiao Yu-ying) (b. 1814 - d. 1887) 2 Nov 1861 - 12 Jan 1875 Regency - Empress DowagerCian (Tz'u-an)(f)(b. 1837 - d. 1881) - Empress DowagerCixi (Tz'u-hsi) (b. 1835 - d. 1908) (f)(1st time) - Yixin, Prince Gong (b. 1833 - d. 1898) (I-hsin, Prince Kung) (to 5 Mar 1865)11 Nov 1861 - 12 Jan 1875 Zaichun (Tsai-ch'un) (b. 1856 - d. 1875) miaohao: Muzong (Mu-tsung)/shi: Yi huangdi(I huang-ti) nianhao 30 Jan 1862 - 5 Feb 1875: Tongzhi (T'ung-chih)25 Feb 1875 - 12 Nov 1908 Zaitian (Tsai-t'ien) (b. 1872 - d. 1908) miaohao: Dezong (Te-tsung)/shi: Jing huangdi(Chinghuang-ti) nianhao 6 Feb 1875 - 21 Jan 1909: Guangxu (Kuang-hsü) (left capital15 Aug 1900, atXi'an26 Oct 1900 - 7 Jan 1902) 25 Feb 1875 - 4 Mar 1889 Empress DowagerCixi (Tz'u-hsi)(f) (s.a.) (2nd time)-Regent (de facto a 3rd time 20 Sep 1898 - 15 Nov 1908; left capital 15 Aug 1900, at Xi'an 26 Oct 1900 - 7 Jan 1902)14 Nov1908 - 6 Dec 1911 Zaifeng, Prince Chun -Regent (b. 1882 - d. 1951) (Tsai-feng, Prince Ch'un) 2 Dec 1908 - 12 Feb 1912 Puyi (P'u-i) (1st time) (b. 1906 - d. 1967) miaohao: none bestowed/shi: nonebestowed nianhao 22 Jan 1909 - 12 Feb 1912: Xuantong (Hsüan-t'ung) (only inside the Forbidden city¹13 Feb 1912 - 5 Nov 1924) 6 Dec 1911 - 12 Feb 1912 Empress DowagerLongyu(Lung-yü)(f)(b. 1868 - d. 1913) (holder of the Imperial seal) 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917 Puyi (P'u-i) (2nd time) (s.a.) miaohao: none bestowed/shi: nonebestowed nianhao 1 Jul - 12 Jul 1917: Xuantong (Hsüan-t'ung)

Prime Ministers of the Cabinet (Neige zongli dachen/Nei-ko tsung-li ta-ch'en)² 9 May 1911 - 15 Nov 1911 Yikuang, PrinceQing (b. 1838 - d. 1917) Non-party (I-k'uang, PrinceCh'ing) (appointed 8 May 1911) 16 Nov 1911 - 12 Feb 1912 Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai) (b. 1859 - d. 1916) Mil (appointed 1 Nov 1911,re-appointed 9 Nov 1911) 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917 Post abolished

¹According to the treaty signed between the Qing (Ch'ing) court and government of the Republic of China, Puyi (P'u-i)(s.a.) retained the title Emperor, received an annual payment from the Republic of China government, had the right to live in the Forbidden City, to be protected by imperial troops, to grant noble and honorary titles, and to maintain certain government organs in the Forbidden City (mainly for management of the Forbidden City and other palaces, management of imperial families, etc). Inside the Forbidden City the flag of the Qingdynasty was flown. People in the Forbidden City continued to wear the Qingofficial dress and used the Qing calendar system. On 1 Dec 1922, the Emperor married and his wife was called Empress. On 5 Nov 1924,Puyiwas forced to leave the Forbidden City by Feng Yuxiang's (Feng Yü-hsiang)(b. 1882 - d. 1948) National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China and all the noted privileges were terminated.

²During the Qing (Ch'ing) restoration 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917, GeneralZhang Xun (Chang Hsün)(b. 1854 - d. 1923) exercised de facto rule, however he purposely avoided assuming any unique office revealing that he was the force behind the restoration. Additionally, the exclusion of any position equal to prime minister from the cabinet structure was intentional and was an attempt to emulate the pre-Revolutionary Qing government where such an office did not exist.

Polities rebelling against the Qing (Ch'ing) Empire 1851-1872
Taiping

[Taiping Heaven and Earth Society Flag, simplified from a flag in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Museum in Nanjing (China)]

11 Jan1851 Taiping tianguo (T'ai-p'ing t'ien-kuo)("Heavenly Realm of Great Peace") inaugurated in Zhejiang,Jiangxi, and parts of Anhui, Fujian,Hubei andJiangsu.19 Mar 1853 Taiping take Nanjing, which is renamed Tianjing (T'ien-ching) ("Heavenly Capital"). 19 Jul 1864 Tianjing is retaken by Qing(Ch'ing)forces. 25 Oct 1864 Extinguished by Qing empire with the capture ofHong Tianguifu.

Heavenly Kings of Great Peace(titleTaipingTian wang [T'ai-p'ing Tien-wang])11 Jan 1851 - 1 Jun 1864 Hong Xiuquan (Hung Hsiu-ch'üan) (b. 1814 - d. 1864) 1 Jun 1864 - 25 Oct 1864 Hong Tianguifu (Hung T'ien-kuei-fu)(b. 1849 - d. 1864)

Shengping

9 Oct 1854 Shengping tianguo (Sheng-p'ing t'ien-kuo)("Heavenly Realm of Approaching Peace")inaugurated in Hunan.24 Jul 1858 Extinguished by Qing(Ch'ing)empire.

Kings 9 Oct 1854 - 24 Jul 1858 Hu Youlu (Hu Yu-lu) (to Oct 1855) (d. 1855) (styledDingnan wang [Ting-nan wang]) + Zhu Hongying (Chu Hung-ying) (d. 1874) (styledZhennan wang [Chen-nan wang])

Dacheng

27 Sep 1855 Dacheng Guo (Ta-ch'engkuo)("Realm of Great Accomplishment") inaugurated in Guangxi, with a capital at Xunzhou (Hsün-chou) (modern Guiping) which is renamed Xiujing (Hsiu-ching) ("Beautiful Capital").21 Aug 1861 Extinguished by Qing empire with the fall ofXiujing.12 May 1872 Last rebel army, under Li Wencai (d. 1872), is destroyedby Qing(Ch'ing)forces in Qiandong, Guizhou.

Kings27 Sep 1855 - 21 Aug 1861 Chen Kai (Ch'en K'ai) (b. 1822 - d. 1861) (styledPingxun wang[P'ing-hsün wang]) + Li Wenmao (Li Wen-mao)(to 1858) (d. 1858) (styledPingjing wang[P'ing-ching wang]) + Liang Peiyou (Liang P'ei-yu) (d. 1875) (styledPingdong wang [P'ing-tung wang]) + Liang Dachang (Liang Ta-ch'ang) (styledDingbei wang [Ting-pei wang])

Kashgharia (1864-77): see underEast Turkestan

Pingnan Guo

1856 - 26 Dec 1872 Pingnan guo (P'ing-nan kuo)("Pacified South State") is a major Islamic rebellious polity in western Yunnan province, it is also referred to as the "Panthay rebellion." 1874 Qing (Ch'ing) army completes suppression the rebellion.

Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin(Leader of the Community of Muslims)(usually referred to in foreign sources as "Sultan")1856 - 26 Dec 1872 Sulayman ibn `Abd ar-Rahman (b. 1823 - d. 1872) (= Du Wenxiu [Tu Wen-hsiu])

	n the Universe)	(The Song
		[Kuo-ch'ing Chieh] (National Day)

10 Oct 1911 Revolution ("Wuchang Uprising") begins against the Qing (Ch'ing) imperial government(a military government claiming to represent the Republic of China is created in Wuchang, Hubei) starting the "Xinhai Revolution" (other provincial military governments supporting a republican form of government were also set up on and after 22 Oct 1911: Anhui, Fengtian, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hunan, Jiangsu [at Zhenjiang and Jiujiang], Nanchang in Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanghai, Shanxi, Sichuan [at Chengdu and Chongqing], Yunnan, and Zhejiang [see underChina Provinces]).20 Nov 1911 Military Government of Hubei province is recognized as the Central Military Government of China (Zhongyang jun zhengfu[Chung-yang chün cheng-fu])and the Chief Supervisor of the Hubei Army, Li Yuanhong (Li Yüan-hung), was authorized to perform some executive functions by resolutions of the United Assembly of Representatives of the Provincial Military Governments on 20 Nov 1911 in Shanghai and 30 Nov 1911 in Wuchang (Wu-ch'ang). 3 Dec 1911 Republic of China (Zhonghua minguo [Chung-hua min-kuo]) established by "Organizational Outline of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China" adopted by the United Assembly of Representatives of the Provincial Military Governments in Wuchang. Pending the election of a Provisional President, the office of Chief Supervisor of the Hubei Army was again recognized [4 Dec 1911] as the Central Military Government with authority to represent the provincial military governments by theUnited Assembly.15 Dec 1911 United Assembly (meeting in Nanjing) amends the "Organizational Outline of the Provisional Government" to authorize the Grand Marshal to exercise the functions of the Provisional President of the Republic, pending elections.Li Yuanhong(LiYüan-hung) is elected Grand Marshalby the United Assembly on 17 Dec 1911(he takes office on 27 Dec 1911). 12 Dec 1915 - 22 Mar 1916 PresidentYuan Shikai(Yüan Shih-k'ai)accepted imperial dignity by a presidential order,but cancelled all preparations 22 Mar 1916. 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917 Brief restoration of the Great Qing Empire (seeabove).10 Sep 1917 Nationalist Military Government of the Republic of China founded in Southern China at Guangzhou [Canton](seebelow). 3 Jun 1928 "Warlord" era Beijing government collapses with the departure of Zhang Zuolin(Chang Tso-lin)(who dies on 4 Jun 1928) and his Prime minister from Beijing ahead of advancing Nationalist Northern Army forces. The Nationalist government inNanjing continues as the sole government of the Republic of China.

Chief Supervisor of the Hubei Army of the Military Government of the Province of Hubei,recognized as the Central Military Government(in Wuchang) [authorized to perform some executive functions]11 Oct 1911 - 27 Dec 1911 Li Yuanhong(LiYüan-hung)      (b. 1864 - d. 1928) MilGrand Marshal(in Wuchang)27 Dec 1911 -  1 Jan 1912 Li Yuanhong(LiYüan-hung)       (s.a.)               Mil                              (continued as grand marshal to 15 Feb 1912) 27 Dec 1911 - 1 Jan 1912 Huang Xing (Huang Hsing)         (b. 1874 - d. 1916) Mil/TMH                              (vice marshal acting for Li in Nanjing) Provisional President(in Nanjing) 1 Jan 1912 -10 Mar 1912 Sun Wen (Sun Wen)"Sun Yat-sen"    (b. 1866 - d. 1925) TMH                             (= Sun Yixian [Sun I-hsien])                              (handed over seals of office 1 Apr 1912)Plenipotentiary for Organizing a Provisional Republican Government¹(in Beijing) 13 Feb 1912 - 15 Feb 1912 Yuan Shikai(Yüan Shih-k'ai)   (s.a.) Mil                              (in opposition to Sun) Provisional President (in Beijing) 15 Feb 1912 - 10 Oct 1913 Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai)   (s.a.) Mil/Beiyang
                            (1st time)President 10 Oct 1913 - 12 Dec 1915 Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai)       (s.a.)               Mil/Beiyang Emperor-elect²12 Dec 1915 - 22 Mar 1916 Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai)   (s.a.)                             nianhao 1 Jan 1916 - 23 Mar 1916: Hongxian (Hung-hsien)                           (this acceptance of imperial dignity by Yuan                            was not formally consummated by an enthronement)Presidents22 Mar 1916 - 6 Jun 1916 Yuan Shikai (2nd time)           (s.a.) Mil/Beiyang
6 Jun 1916 - 6 Jul 1917 Li Yuanhong(LiYüan-hung) (s.a.) Mil/Prog (prevented from exercising functions on 1 Jul 1917 [restoration of monarchy], moved to JapaneselegationBeijing2 Jul 1917, resumed functions, instructing Feng Guozhang to take over)     (1st time) 6 Jul 1917 -10 Oct 1918 Feng Guozhang (Feng Kuo-chang)     (b. 1859 - d. 1919) Mil/Zhili               (in Nanjing 6 Jul 1917, arrived in Beijing on 1 Aug 1917) 10 Oct 1918 - 2 Jun 1922 Xu Shichang (Hsü Shih-ch'ang)      (b. 1855 - d. 1939) Anhui 2 Jun 1922 - 11 Jun 1922 Zhou Ziqi (Chao Tzu-ch'i)(acting) (b. 1871 - d. 1923) Comm 11 Jun 1922 - 13 Jun 1923 Li Yuanhong (2nd time)    (s.a.) Mil/Res                             (left Beijing 13 Jun 1923, moving to Tianjin then    Shanghai; maintained he never resigned office) 13 Jun 1923 -10 Oct 1923 State Council (acting)                            - Gao Lingwei (Kao Ling-wei)     (b. 1868 - d. 1943) Anhui    (principal signatory to 23 Jul 1923)    - Gu Weijun (Ku Wei-chün)    (b. 1887 - d. 1985) Non-party                            ("V.K. Wellington Koo")                              (principal signatory from 23 Jul 1923)10 Oct 1923 - 2 Nov 1924 Cao Kun (Ts'ao K'un)               (b. 1862 - d. 1938) Mil/Zhili 2 Nov 1924 - 24 Nov 1924 Huang Fu (Huang Fu)(acting)        (b. 1880 - d. 1936) ZhiliProvisional ChiefExecutive 24 Nov 1924 - 20 Apr 1926 Duan Qirui (Tuan Ch'i-jui)         (b. 1865 - d. 1936) Mil/Anhui                           (prevented from exercising office and in                              refuge in Beijing Legation Quarter 10 - 15 Apr 1926)Presidents20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926 Vacant 20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926 Hu Weide (Hu Wei-te)(acting)     (b. 1863 - d. 1933) Non-party (declined to serve as head of government,                              continued as foreign minister)13 May 1926 - 23 Jun 1926 Yan Huiqing"W.W. Yen" (acting) (b. 1877 - d. 1950) Zhili                            (Yen Hui-ch'ing)
23 Jun 1926 - 5 Oct 1926 Du Xigui (Tu Hsi-kuei) (acting)    (b. 1875 - d. 1933) Mil/Zhili 5 Oct 1926 - 18 Jun 1927 Gu Weijun"V.K. Wellington Koo"    (s.a.) Non-party                           (Ku Wei-chün) (acting) Grand Marshal of the Army and Navy 18 Jun 1927 - 3 Jun 1928 Zhang Zuolin (Chang Tso-lin)       (b. 1873 - d. 1928) Mil/Feng
                           (left Beijing 3 Jun 1928, dies 4 Jun 1928 en-route to Shenyang)

Prime ministers13 Mar 1912 - 29 Jun 1912 Tang Shaoyi (T'ang Shao-i)         (b. 1862 - d. 1938) Beiyang                            (1st time)17 Jun 1912 - 25 Sep 1912 Lu Zhengxiang (Lu Cheng-hsiang)    (b. 1870 - d. 1949) Non-party
                             (= Pierre-Célestin Lou)                              (acting [forTang] to 29 Jun 1912) 20 Aug 1912 - 16 Jul 1913 Zhao Bingjun (Chao Ping-chün)      (b. 1859 - d. 1914) Beiyang                             (acting [for Lu] to 25 Sep 1912) 2 May 1913 - 26 Aug 1913 Duan Qirui(Tuan Ch'i-jui)         (s.a.) Mil/Beiyang                            (acting [forZhao to 16 Jul 1913])                              (1st time) 17 Jul 1913 - 19 Jul 1913 Zhu Qiqian (Chu Ch'i-chien)(acting)(b. 1871 - d. 1964) Non-party                              (appointed, but did not take office) 26 Aug 1913 - 14 Feb 1914 Xiong Xiling (Hsiung Hsi-ling)     (b. 1870 - d. 1941) Beiyang14 Feb 1914 - 2 May 1914 Sun Baoqi(Sun Pao-ch'i)(acting) (s.a.) BeiyangSecretaries of State 2 May 1914 - 22 Dec 1915 Xu Shichang(Chu Ch'i-chien)   (s.a.) Beiyang                              (1st time)28 Oct 1915 - 22 Mar 1916 Lu Zhengxiang(Lu Cheng-hsiang)    (s.a.)               Non-party                             (acting for Xu to 22 Dec 1915) 22 Mar 1916 - 23 Apr 1916 Xu Shichang(2nd time) (s.a.) Beiyang23 Apr 1916 - 30 Jun 1916  Duan Qirui(Tuan Ch'i-jui)    (s.a.) Mil/BeiyangPrime ministers30 Jun 1916 - 24 May 1917  Duan Qirui (Tuan Ch'i-jui)   (s.a.) Mil/Prog
                            (2nd time)24 May 1917 - 13 Jun 1917 Wu Tingfang (Wu T'ing-fang)        (b. 1842 - d. 1922) Prog                            (acting)13 Jun 1917 - 24 Jun 1917 Jiang Zhaozong (Chiang Chao-tsung) (b. 1861 - d. 1943) Mil                              (acting) 24 Jun 1917 - 5 Jul 1917 Li Jingxi (Li Ching-hsi)(1st time) (b. 1857 - d. 1925) Prog 5 Jul 1917 - 23 Nov 1917 Duan Qirui (3rd time)            (s.a.) Mil/Anhui                             (appointed 2 Jul 1917, arrived in Beijing 14 Jul 1917) 23 Nov 1917 - 2 Dec 1917 Wang Daxie (Wang Ta-hsieh) (b. 1859 - d. 1929) Zhili (1st time)(acting) 2 Dec 1917 - 24 Mar 1918 Weng Shizhen (Weng Shih-chen)    (b. 1861 - d. 1930) Anhui    (acting) 21 Feb 1918 - 24 Mar 1918 Qiang Nengxun (Ch'iang Neng-hsün) (b. 1869 - d. 1924) Anhui    (1st time)(acting for Weng) 24 Mar 1918 - 11 Oct 1918 Duan Qirui(4th time)            (s.a.) Mil/Anhui11 Oct 1918 - 14 Jun 1919 Qiang Nengxun (2nd time)    (s.a.)     Anhui                            (acting to 21 Dec 1918) 14 Jun 1919 - 25 Sep 1919 Gong Xinzhan (Kung Hsin-chan)      (b. 1871 - d. 1943) Anhui                             (acting)25 Sep 1919 - 2 Jul 1920 Jin Yunpeng (Chin Yün-p'eng)       (b. 1877 - d. 1925) Mil/Anhui                              (1st time)(acting to 5 Nov 1919)14 May 1920 - 10 Aug 1920 Sa Zhenbing (Sa Chen-ping)         (b. 1859 - d. 1952) Mil/Anhui   (acting [for Yunpeng to 2 Jul 1920])10 Aug 1920 - 19 Dec 1921 Jin Yunpeng (2nd time)       (s.a.) Mil/Anhui
                            (acting to 14 May 1921)19 Dec 1921 - 25 Dec 1921 Yan Huiqing"W.W. Yen" (1st time) (s.a.) Zhili                            (Yen Hui-ch'ing)(acting)25 Dec 1921 - 5 May 1922 Liang Shiyi (Liang Shih-i)         (b. 1869 - d. 1933) Comm 27 Jan 1922 - 11 Apr 1922 Yan Huiqing"W.W. Yen"(2nd time) (s.a.) Zhili                             (acting forLiang) 11 Apr 1922 - 12 Jun 1922 Zhou Ziqi (Chao Tzu-ch'i)    (s.a.) Anhui                            (acting [forLiang to 5 May 1922])12 Jun 1922 - 8 Aug 1922 Yan Huiqing"W.W. Yen"(3rd time) (s.a.) Zhili
                      (acting) 5 Aug 1922 - 19 Sep 1922 Tang Shaoyi(T'ang Shao-i)(2nd time)(s.a.) Non-party                              (appointed, but did not take office) 8 Aug 1922 - 30 Nov 1922 Wang Chonghui (Wang Ch'ung-hui)    (b. 1881 - d. 1958) Zhili                             (acting [for Tang to 19 Sep 1922])30 Nov 1922 - 14 Dec 1922 Wang Daxie(2nd time) (acting)     (s.a.)               Zhili14 Dec 1922 - 5 Jan 1923 Wang Zhengting"C.T. Wang"         (b. 1882 - d. 1961) Non-party     (Wang Cheng-t'ing) (acting) 5 Jan 1923 - 15 Jan 1924³Zhang Shaozeng (Chang Shao-tseng) (b. 1879 - d. 1928) Mil/Beiyang13 Jun 1923 - 9 Sep 1923 Li Genyuan (Li Ken-yuan)       (b. 1879 - d. 1965) Anhui     (in dissidence in Tianjin, appointed by Li Yuanhong)12 Oct 1923 - 15 Jan 1924 Gao Lingwei(Kao Ling-wei)        (s.a.)     Anhui                             (acting for Zhang)15 Jan 1924 - 4 Jul 1924 Sun Baoqi(Sun Pao-ch'i)        (s.a.) Beiyang  4 Jul 1924 - 16 Sep 1924 Gu Weijun"V.K. Wellington Koo" (s.a.)               Non-party                            (Ku Wei-chün)(1st time) (acting) 16 Sep 1924 - 1 Nov 1924  Yan Huiqing"W.W. Yen"(4th time) (s.a.) Zhili 1 Nov 1924 - 24 Nov 1924 Huang Fu (Huang Fu) (acting)       (s.a.)               Zhili24 Nov 1924 - 28 Dec 1925 Post abolished28 Dec 1925 - 6 Mar 1926 Xu Shiying (Hsü Shih-ying)         (b. 1873 - d. 1964) Anhui19 Feb 1926 - 20 Apr 1926 Jia Deyao (Chia Te-yao)    (b. 1880 - d. 1940) Mil/Anhui                              (acting for Xu to 6 Mar 1926)20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926 Hu Weide(Hu Wei-te)     (s.a.) Non-party (declined to serve as head of government,                              continued as foreign minister) 20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926 Vacant 13 May 1926 - 23 Jun 1926 Yan Huiqing"W.W. Yen" (5th time) (s.a.) Zhili
                            (acting) 23 Jun 1926 - 5 Oct 1926 Du Xigui(Tu Hsi-kuei)(acting)    (s.a.) Mil/Zhili  5 Oct 1926 - 20 Jun 1927 Gu Weijun (2nd time)(acting)     (s.a.) Non-party20 Jun 1927 - 3 Jun 1928 Pan Fu (P'an Fu)      (b. 1883 - d. 1936) Feng                             (from 3 Jun 1928 in Tianjin, left for Dairen 10 Jun 1928)

Military Government of the Army Protecting the Nation 1916:

Note: Military government uniting four provinces (Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, and Guizhou),in opposition to Yuan Shikai (s.a.),proclaiming Li Yuanhong (s.a.) President of China and nominally acting in his namefrom Zhaoqing (Chao-ch'ing) in Guangdong.

Leaders of the Civil Governors composing the Military Affairs Yuan 8 May 1916 - 14 Jul 1916 Tang Jiyao(T'ang Chi-yao) (s.a.) Mil (elected but did not take office, remained in Yunnan) 8 May 1916 - 14 Jul 1916 Cen Chunxuan (Ts'en Ch'un-hsüan) (b. 1861 - d. 1933) Mil (deputy leader, acting for Tang)

Head of the Government Affairs Committee Leading the Civil Governors 8 May 1916 - 14 Jul 1916 Liang Qichao (Liang Ch'i-ch'ao) (b. 1873 - d. 1929) Prog

¹An imperial edict proclaiming the abdication of the Emperor (on 12 Feb 1912) also gave Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai)(s.a.) full authority to organize a provisional republican government. He assumed the office by issuing a notice on 13 Feb 1912. After his election as Provisional President at the session of the Senate held in Nanjing 15 Feb 1912, he also began to exercise the function of this office before his formal inauguration which took place in Beijing on 10 Mar 1912.

Yuan Shikai(s.a.) accepted a proposal to become the emperor by a presidential order dated 12 Dec 1915, and initiated preparations for enthronement; introduced an imperial era (Hongxian) by an order dated 31 Dec 1915; cancelled all preparations on 22 Mar 1916. Prime ministerZhang Shaozeng(Chang Shao-tseng)(s.a.) wasdischarged by presidential order of 13 Jun 1923. The presidential order was proclaimed null and void on 17 Jun 1923 by the Cabinet acting on resolutions of the House of Representatives and Senate.

Party/Faction abbreviations:Anhui =Wan xijunfa/Wan hsi-chün-fa (Anhui Clique, 1916-1920, split from Beiyang); Anfu =Anfu julebu/An-fu chü-le-pu(Anfu Club, literally 'Peace and Happiness Club', political wing of theAnhui clique, 7 Mar 1918-1920, split from Beiyang clique);Beiyang=Beiyang xijunfa/Pei-yang hsi-chün-fa (Beiyang Clique, supported Beiyang army, conservative, 1911-1928); Comm =Jiaotong xijunfa/Chiao-t'ung hsi-chün-fa (Communications Clique, powerful interest group of politicians, bureaucrats, technocrats, businessmen, engineers, and labor unionists in Beiyang government 1912-1928, also called Cantonese Clique);Feng =Feng xijunfa/Feng hsi-chün-fa (Fengtian Clique, 1919-1928, split from Beiyang led by Zhang Zuolin);KMT=Zhongguo Guomindang/Chung-kuo Kuo-min-tang (National Party of China, "Kuomintang", nationalist, republican, conservative, anti-Communist, 1 Jun 1931 - 28 Sep 1986 state party, est.23 Aug 1912-Nov 1913,re-formed.10 Oct 1919); Prog = Jinbu dang/Chin-pu Tang (Progressive Party, center-right, 1913-1916); Res = Yanjiu Jituan xijunfa/Yen-chiu Chi-t'uan hsi-chün-fa (Constitution Research Clique, split from Prog, 1918-1924);TMH =Zhongguo Tongmenghui/Chung-kuo T'ung-meng Hui (Chinese Common League, 1905-Aug 1912, merged into KMT);Zhili = Zhili xijunfa/Chih-li hsi-chün-fa (Zhili Clique, 1916-1926, clique's base of power Zhili province, split from Beiyang Clique);Mil= Military

Note: The name of the polity is still Republic of China, which declares itself the legal successor to the preceding polity of that name, it has a different flag (from 1921) and government, and eventually a different capital, Nanjing (Beijing is in fact deprived of the name-partjing, meaning capital, and is renamed Beiping after the demise of the "warlord" regime). During the Sino-Japanese war the capital is moved first to Hankou (17-21 Nov 1937), then to Chongqing (21 Nov 1937 - 5 May 1946). On 8 Dec 1949, the government moves to Taiwan. Coverage of the Republic of China from that point continues underTaiwan.

	ngo gog" Chung-hua ming-kuo kuo-ke] (National Anthem of the Republic of China Sanmin Zhuyi" [San Min Chu-i] Three Principles of the People)	Jun 1937 (proposed Ma 1930)
		National Day) 10 Oct (1911)

10 Sep 1917 Nationalist Military Government of the Republic of China in Southern China formed atGuangzhou[Canton]. 21 May 1918 Sun Wen publishes a notice on termination of functions of the Grand Marshal on his departure from Guangdong (following his resignation from the office of the Grand Marshal dated 4 May 1918 submitted to the extraordinary session of the Congress on 7 May 1918, pending the acceptance which was never voted). 6 Aug 1918 House of Representatives of the National Assembly re-convenes in Guangzhou follow being forcibly dissolved in Beijing, followed by the Senate on 7 Aug 1918. 29 Nov 1920 Restoration of the Military Government proclaimed at Guangzhou (following its dissolution on24 Oct 1920). 21 Feb 1923 Military Government restored at Guangzhou (following its collapse on 9 Aug 1922 after the coup of 16 Jun 1922). 18 Apr 1927 - 20 Sep 1927 Members of the National Government present in Nanjing constitute a de facto rival government (opposed to the government inWuhan [Hankou]). 1 Aug 1927 -22 Sep 1937 Civil war begins between Nationalist and Communist forces. 1 Jul 1925 Establishment of a national government in Nanjing (Nan-ching) [Nanking](followed by a flight to Wuhan/Hankou on 1 Jul 1925 and subsequent reconciliation in Nanjing on 20 Sep 1927). 3 Jun 1928 Collapse of the "Warlord" era Beijing government with the departure of Zhang Zuolinfrom Beijing. On 15 Jun 1928, the Nationalist government issues a national unification declaration to foreign diplomats ("formal declaration on the subject of foreign policy"). 18 Sep 1931 Japanese invasion and occupation ofNortheastern China begins (Heilongjiang,Jilin, and Liaoning [Fengtian] provinces)(see underManchuria) 7 Nov 1931 - 22 Sep 1937 Chinese Soviet Republicin rebellion against Republicof China (seebelow). Aug 1937 - Sep 1945 Japanese occupation of Northeastern China, the Yellow River valley and most of the coastal provinces. The capital is moved to first toWuhan/Hankou (17-21 Nov 1937), then to Chongqing (21 Nov 1937 - 5 May 1946). 20 Jul 1946 - 8 Dec 1949 Renewed civil war between Nationalist and Communist forces. 8 Dec 1949 Republic of China government moves to Taibei (T'ai-pei),Taiwan.

Grand Marshal of the Navy and Army(at Guangzhou)10 Sep 1917 - 21 May 1918 Sun Wen (Sun Wen)"Sun Yat-sen" (b. 1866 - d. 1925) CMT/Mil (= Sun Yixian [Sun I-hsien]) (resignation of 4 May 1918 not formally accepted; published a notice on termination of functions on departure from Guangdong on 21 May 1918)21 May 1918 - 5 Jul 1918 Vacant Military Government of the Republic of China(at Guangzhou) 5 Jul 1918 - 21 Aug 1918 Directors-General of Government Affairs - Tang Jiyao (T'ang Chi-yao) (b. 1883 - d. 1927) Mil - Wu Tingfang (Wu T'ing-fang) (b. 1842 - d. 1922) CMT - Lin Baoyi (Lin Pao-i) (b. 1863 - d. 1927) Mil - Lu Rongting (Lu Jung-t'ing) (b. 1859 - d. 1928) Mil - Cen Chunxuan (Ts'en Ch'un-hsüan) (b. 1861 - d. 1933) Mil 21 Aug 1918 - 24 Oct 1920 Cen Chunxuan (Ts'en Ch'un-hsüan) (s.a.) Mil (presiding director-general of Government Affairs)24 Oct 1920 - 29 Nov 1920 Vacant 29 Nov 1920 - 5 May 1921 Directors-General of Government Affairs - Tang Shaoyi (b. 1862 - d. 1938) Mil -Sun Wen"Sun Yat-sen" (s.a.) KMT - Wu Tingfang (s.a.) KMT - Tang Jiyao (absent to 2 Apr 1921)(s.a.) Mil/KMTPresident (and Grand Marshal of the Armyand Navy) (colloquially styled "Extraordinary President") 5 May 1921 - 9 Aug 1922 Sun Wen "Sun Yat-sen" (s.a.) KMT (forced to depart Guangdong 9 Aug 1922, did not resign) 9 Aug 1922 - 21 Feb 1923 Vacant Grand Marshal of the Army and Navy21 Feb 1923 - 12 Mar 1925 Sun Wen "Sun Yat-sen" (s.a.) KMTChief Counselor of the Headquarters acting as Grand Marshal, Governor of Guangdong 12 Mar 1925 - 1 Jul 1925 Hu Hanmin (s.a.) KMT (acting for absent Sun 13 Nov 1924 - 12 Mar 1925) Chairman of the Meetings ofthe Committee of the NationalGovernment 1 Jul 1925 - 2 Jul 1925 National Government(at Guangzhou) - Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei" (b. 1883 - d. 1944) KMT (Wang Chao-ming"Wang Ching-wei") -Hu Hanmin (Hu Han-min) (s.a.) KMT -Tan Yankai (T'an Yen-k'ai) (b. 1880 - d. 1930) Mil/KMT -Xu Chongzhi (Hsu Ch'ung-chi) (b. 1887 - d. 1965) Mil/KMT -Lin Sen (Lin Sen) (b. 1867 - d. 1943) KMT -Liao Zhongkai (Liao Chung-k'ai) (b. 1877 - d. 1925) KMT -Wu Chaoshu "CC Wu" (Wu Ch'ao-shu)(b. 1887 - d. 1934) KMT - Gu Yingfen (Ku Ying-fen) (b. 1873 - d. 1931) KMT -Zhu Peide (Chu P'ei-teh) (b. 1889 - d. 1937) Mil/KMT -Sun Ke "Sun Fo" (Sun K'o) (b. 1891 - d. 1973) KMT -Cheng Qian (Ch'eng Ch'ien) (b. 1882 - d. 1968) Mil/KMT 2 Jul 1925 - 20 Mar 1927 Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei" (s.a.) KMT (Wang Chao-ming "Wang Ching-wei") (inGuangzhou; absent 11 May 1926 - 10 Apr 1927) 2 Jul 1925 - 20 Sep 1927 Standing Committee of the National Government(at Wuhan [Hankou]) - Wang Zhaoming "Wang Ching-wei" (s.a.) KMT (absent11 May 1926 - 1 Apr 1927, arrived Hankou 10 Apr 1927) - Hu Hanmin (s.a.) KMT (to 22 Sep 1925 and from 5/6 Feb 1926) -Tan Yankai (T'an Yen-k'ai) (s.a.) Mil/KMT -Xu Chongzhi (Hsu Ch'ung-chi) (s.a.) Mil/KMT (to 22 Sep 1925 -Lin Sen (Lin Sen) (s.a.) KMT (to 5/6 Feb 1926) -Wu Chaoshu"CC Wu" (s.a.) KMT (22 Sep 1925 - 20 Mar 1927) - Gu Yingfen(Ku Ying-fen) (s.a.) KMT (22 Sep 1925 - 20 Mar 1927) - Zhang Renjie(Chang Jen-chieh) (b. 1877 - d. 1950) KMT (2 Jun 1926 - 20 Mar 1927) - Song Ziwen"T.V. Soong" (b. 1894 - d. 1971) KMT (Sung Tzu-wen)(from 2 Jun 1926) - Sun Ke "Sun Fo" (Sun K'o) (s.a.) KMT (from 20 Mar 1927) - Xu Qian"George Hsu"(Hsu Ch'ien)(b. 1871 - d. 1940) KMT (from 20 Mar 1927) 18 Apr 1927 - 7 Feb 1928 Standing Committee of the National Government(at Nanjing; in opposition to 20 Sep 1927) - Hu Hanmin (to 20 Sep 1927) (s.a.) KMT (presided at most meetings30 Apr - 10 Aug 1927) - Gu Yingfen (Ku Ying-fen) (s.a.) KMT (to 20 Sep 1927) - Wu Chaoshu "CC Wu" (Wu Ch'ao-shu)(s.a.) KMT (to 20 Sep 1927) - Zhang Renjie (Chang Jen-chieh) (s.a.) KMT (to 20 Sep 1927) - Cai Yuanpei (Ts'ai Yuan-p'ei) (b. 1868 - d. 1940) KMT (from 20 Sep 1927) - Tan Yankai (from 20 Sep 1927) (s.a.) Mil/KMT (presided at most meetingsfrom 20 Sep 1927) - Li Liejun (Li Lie-chün) (b. 1882 - d. 1946) KMT (from 20 Sep 1927) - Jiang Zhongzheng (b. 1887 - d. 1975) KMT/Mil (Chiang Chung-cheng)"Chiang Kai-shek" (from 3 Jan 1928) Presidents of the National Government 7 Feb 1928 - 10 Oct 1928 Tan Yankai (s.a.) KMT 10 Oct 1928 - 15 Dec 1931 Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek"(s.a.) KMT/Mil (Chiang Chung-cheng) (1st time)15 Dec 1931 - 1 Aug 1943 Lin Sen (Lin Sen) (s.a.) KMT (acting to 1 Jan 1932) 1 Aug 1943 - 20 May 1948 Jiang Zhongzheng"Chiang Kai-shek"(s.a.) KMT/Mil (2nd time)(acting to 10 Oct 1943) Presidents20 May 1948 - 8 Dec 1949 Jiang Zhongzheng"Chiang Kai-shek" (s.a.) KMT/Mil (declared retirement 21 Jan 1949, resumed office 1 Mar 1950)(continues to 5 Apr 1975 onTaiwan) 21 Jan 1949 - 8 Dec 1949 Li Zongren (Li Tsung-jen) (b. 1890 - d. 1969) KMT (acting [for absent Chiang], left country 20 Nov 1949) (continues to 1 Mar 1950 onTaiwan)

Heads of the Executive Yuan (Prime ministers)25 Oct 1928 - 22 Sep 1930 Tan Yankai(T'an Yen-k'ai) (s.a.) KMT22 Sep 1930 - 24 Nov 1930 Song Ziwen "T.V. Soong"(1st time) (s.a.) KMT (Sung Tzu-wen) (acting) 24 Nov 1930 - 15 Dec 1931 Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek" (s.a.) Mil/KMT (Chiang Chung-cheng) (1st time) 15 Dec 1931 - 1 Jan 1932 Chen Mingshu (Ch'en Ming-shu) (b. 1890 - d. 1965) KMT (acting) 1 Jan 1932 - 29 Jan 1932 Sun Ke "Sun Fo" (Sun K'o)(1st time)(s.a.) KMT29 Jan 1932 - 16 Dec 1935 Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei" (s.a.) KMT (Wang Chao-ming "Wang Ching-wei") 4 Sep 1932 - 30 Mar 1933 Song Ziwen(acting for Wang) (s.a.) KMT20Jul 1935 - 23 Aug 1935 Kong Xiangxi "H.H. Kung" (b. 1880 - d. 1967) KMT (Kung Hsiang-hsi)(acting forWang) 8 Nov 1935 - 16 Dec 1935 Kong Xiangxi "H.H. Kung" (s.a.) KMT (acting forWang) 16 Dec 1935 - 4 Jan 1938 Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek" (s.a.) Mil/KMT (prisoner ofZhang Xueliang 12-26 Dec 1936) (2nd time) 13 Dec 1936 - 28 Dec 1936 Kong Xiangxi"H.H. Kung" (s.a.) KMT (Kung Hsiang-hsi)(acting forJiang) 6 Apr 1937 - 29 May 1937 Wang Chonghui (Wang Ch'ung-hui) (b. 1881 - d. 1958) KMT (acting forJiang) 4 Jan 1938 - 11 Dec 1939 Kong Xiangxi "H.H. Kung" (s.a.) KMT11 Dec 1939 - 25 Jun 1945 Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek"(s.a.) Mil/KMT (3rd time) 7 Dec 1944 - 25 Jun 1945 Song Ziwen (acting forJiang) (s.a.) KMT 25 Jun 1945 - 1 Mar 1947 Song Ziwen (2nd time) (s.a.) KMT 27 Jun 1945 - 17 Jul 1945 Weng Wenhao "W.H. Wong" (b. 1889 - d. 1971) KMT (Weng Wen-hao) (acting for Song) 5 Aug 1945 - 6 Oct 1945 Weng Wenhao(acting forSong) (s.a.) KMT 1 Mar 1947 - 23 Apr 1947 Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek" (s.a.) Mil/KMT (4th time) (acting)23 Apr 1947 - 1 Jun 1948 Zhang Qun (Chang Ch'ün) (b. 1889 - d. 1990) Mil/KMT 1 Jun 1948 - 23 Dec 1948 Weng Wenhao "W.H. Wong" (s.a.) KMT23 Dec 1948 - 24 Mar 1949 Sun Ke "Sun Fo" (Sun K'o)(2nd time)(s.a.) KMT24 Mar 1949 - 13 Jun 1949 He Yingqin (Ho Ying-ch'in) (b. 1889 - d. 1987) Mil/KMT13 Jun 1949 - 8 Dec 1949 Yan Xishan (Yen Hsi-shan) (b. 1883 - d. 1960) Mil/KMT (continues to 15 Mar 1950 onTaiwan)

Commander-in- Chief of the Allied Powers China Theater of Operations (Kunming, Yunnan) 25 Dec 1944 - 31 May 1946 He Yingqin (b. 1890 - d. 1987) Mil/KMT

Refused to recognize their replacement by the members elected on 11 Mar 1927 in Hankou (Wuhan) and constituted a de facto rival Standing Committee in Nanjing on 18 Apr 1927.

Party abbreviations:KMT=Zhongguo Guomindang/Chung-kuo Kuo-min-tang (National Party of China, "Kuomintang", nationalist, republican, conservative, anti-Communist, 1 Jun 1931 - 28 Sep 1986 state party, est.23 Aug 1912-Nov 1913,re-formed.10 Oct 1919);CMT= ZhongguoGemindang/Chung-kuo Ko-min-tang (Chinese Revolutionary Party, formed by Sun Wen from KMT, 8 Jul 1914 - 10 Oct 1919, merged into KMT); Mil = Military

[Flag of Republic of China 1921-1949]

9 Sep 1930 A rival National Government is inaugurated in Beijing (Pei-ching) after its election by a dissident faction of the Central Party Department of the KMT on 1 Sep 1930.23 Sep 1930 Northeast Army (Manchurian) army enters Beijing.27 Oct 1930 The dissident Central Party Department of the KMT, that created the government, dissolves itself. bf.4 Nov 1930 Government ceased to function after military defeat by the armed forces of the (Nanjing-based) Republic of China.

President of the Committee of the National Government(at Beijing [Pei-ching]) 9 Sep 1930-bf.4 Nov 1930 Xishan (Yen Hsi-shan) (b. 1883 - d. 1960) Mil/KMT (left Beijing 20 Sep 1930, continues inShanxi to bf.4 Nov 1930)

28 May 1931 National Government established atGuangzhou by KMT dissidents. 5 Jan 1932 Guangzhou falls to forces of (Nanjing-based) Republic of China.

Standing Committee of the National Government(at Guangzhou [Kuang-chou])28 May 1931 - 5 Jan 1932 Members[no chairman elected] - Tang Shaoyi (T'ang Shao-i) (b. 1862 - d. 1938) KMT - Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei" (b. 1883 - d. 1944) KMT (Wang Chao-ming "Wang Ching-wei") - Gu Yingfen (Ku Ying-fen) (b. 1873 - d. 1931) KMT (to 28 Oct 1931) - Zou Lu (Tzou Lu) (b. 1885 - d. 1954) KMT - Sun Ke "Sun Fo" (Sun K'o) (b. 1891 - d. 1973) KMT - Deng Zeru (Teng Tse-ju) (b. 1869 - d. 1934) KMT

People's Revolutionary Government of the Republic of China

20 Nov 1933 China is proclaimed a democratic republic by the Chinese People's Provisional Congress in Fuzhou (Fu-chou)[Foochow] in Fujian (Fu-chien)[Fukien] province. 22 Nov 1933 People's RevolutionaryGovernment of the Republic of China (Zhonghua gongheguo renmin geming zhengfu[Chung-hua kung-ho-kuo jen-min ko-ming cheng-fu])[Republic of China =Zhonghua gongheguo [Chung-huakung-ho-kuo]) as opposed toZhonghua minguo[Chung-hua min-kuo]) establishedatFuzhoubythe Chinese People's Provisional Congress.13 Jan 1934 State collapses with the occupation ofFuzhouby forces of the Republic of China.

President of the Committee of the People's Revolutionary Government(at Fuzhou [Fu-chou])22 Nov 1933 - 13 Jan 1934 Li Jishen (Li Chi-shen) (b. 1885 - d. 1959) SRD (fledFuzhou 12 Jan 1934)

Soviet Republic of China

7 Nov 1931 Soviet Republic of China(Zhonghua suweiai gongheguo[Chung-hua su-wei-ai kung-ho-kuo])(sometimes called by historians the "Chinese Soviet Republic" or the "Jiangxi Soviet Republic") is establishedin Ruijin (Jui-chin) in Jiangxi (Chiang-shi) provinceby the Congress of the Representatives of All National Soviets of the Workers, Peasants and Soldiers of China (in rebellion against the Republic of China). 1 Dec 1931 Provisional Central Government of the Soviet Republic of China is established. 16 Oct 1934 Ceased to exist de facto after the loss of its capital and territory to the armed forces of the Republic of China. 16 Oct 1934 - 22 Oct 1935 Loss of capital, followed by the "Long March" to the North-west. 22 Sep 1937 Soviet Republic of China ceases to exist de jure following the publication of the declaration of co-operation between the Communist Party of China and the Nationalist Party of China.General Secretaries of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of ChinaSep 1931 - 17 Jan 1935 Bo Gu (Po Ku) (b. 1907 - d. 1946) (acting to 15 Jan 1934) 17 Jan 1935 - 22 Sep 1937 Zhang Wentian (Chang Wen-t'ien) (b. 1899 - d. 1976) (acting)(continues to 20 Mar 1943)

Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Republic of China 1 Dec 1931 - 22 Sep 1937 Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) (b. 1893 - d. 1976) CPC (elected 21 Nov 1931)

Chairmen of the People's Committee of the Soviet Republic of China 1 Dec 1931 - 3 Feb 1934 Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) (s.a.) CPC 3 Feb 1934 - 16 Oct 1934 Zhang Wentian (Chang Wen-t'ien) (s.a.) CPC

Party abbreviations:CPC = Zhongguo Gongchandang/Chung-kuo Kung-ch'an-tang (Communist Party of China,communist, authoritarian, Chinese nationalist, Marxist-Leninist,state party from 1 Oct 1949,est.23 Jul 1921); KMT=Zhongguo Guomindang/Chung-kuo Kuo-min-tang (National Party of China, "Kuomintang", nationalist, republican, conservative, anti-Communist, 1 Jun 1931 - 28 Sep 1986 state party, est.23 Aug 1912-Nov 1913,re-formed.10 Oct 1919); SRD= Shengchan Renmin Dang/Sheng-ch'an Jen-min Tang (Producer [Productive] People's Party, moderate socialist, anti-imperialism, anti-Japanese, anti-Chiang Kai-shek, split from KMT, formed during Fujian rebellion, 20 Nov 1933 - 13 Jan 1934);Mil = Military

East Turkestan (1933-34, 1944-46): see underEast Turkestan

	(The Song	ngo gog" Chung-hua min-kuo kuo-ke] (National Anthem of the Republic of China
	14 Dec 1937 - 30 Mar 1940; and Nanjing [Nanking] 28 Mar 1938 - 3 - 0 Mar 1940)	[Kuo-ch'ing chieh] (National Day)

Aug 1937 - Sep 1945 Japanese occupation of North Eastern China (from Sep 1931), the Yellow River valley, Hainan, and most of the coastal provinces. 14 Dec 1937 Provisional Government of the Republic of Chinaorganizedat Beijing under Japanese occupation. 28 Mar 1938 Reformed Governmentsetupat Nanjing under Japanese occupation. 30 Mar 1940 National Government of the Republic of China reorganizedunder Wang Jingwei (Wang Ching-wei)at Nanjing(as a merger of Provisional Government and the ReformedGovernment and from 4 Aug 1941, Mengjiang)(it was recognized as the government of China only by the Axis powers, most Axis satellite states, and Spain).20 Nov 1940 Sino-Japanese Basic Treaty signed, by which Japan recognized the Wang JingweiNationalist government,andWang Jingwei's National Government government recognized Manchukuo.16 Aug 1945 NationalGovernmentdeclares its dissolution.

Head of the Executive Committee of Provisional Government of the Republic of China(at Beijing)14 Dec 1937 - 30 Mar 1940 Wang Kemin (Wang K'o-min) (b. 1873 - d. 1945) Non-partyHead of the Executive Yuan of the Reformed Government of the Republic of China (at Nanjing)28 Mar 1938 - 30 Mar 1940 Liang Hongzhi (Liang Hung-chih) (b. 1883 - d. 1946) Non-party (acting to 29 Jul 1938)

Presidents of the National Governmentof the Republic of China (at Nanjing)30 Mar 1940 - 10 Nov 1944 Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei" (b. 1883 - d. 1944) KMT-WC (Wang Chao-ming "Wang Ching-wei") (acting to 29 Nov 1940; departed for Japan 3 Mar 1944)22 Mar 1944 - 16 Aug 1945 Chen Gongbo (Ch'en Kung-po) (b. 1892 - d. 1946) KMT-WC (acting [for Wang to 10 Nov 1944] to 12 Nov 1944)

Heads of the Executive Yuan (Prime ministers)(at Nanjing) 30 Mar 1940 - 10 Nov 1944 Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei" (s.a.) KMT-WC (Wang Chao-ming "Wang Ching-wei") (departed for Japan 3 Mar 1944) 10 Nov 1944 - 12 Nov 1944 Zhou Fohai (Chou Fo-hai) (acting) (b. 1897 - d. 1948) KMT-WC12 Nov 1944 - 16 Aug 1945 Chen Gongbo (Ch'en Kung-po) (s.a.) KMT-WC

Chairmen of the North China Government Affairs Committee(at Beijing) (subordinated to the National Government in Nanjing) 30 Mar 1940 - 6 Jun 1940 Wang Kemin(Wang K'o-min)(1st time)(s.a.) Non-party 6 Jun 1940 - 8 Feb 1943 Wang Yitang(Wang I-t'ang) (b. 1877 - d. 1948) KMT-WC 8 Feb 1943 - 2 Jul 1943 Zhu Shen(Chu Ch'en) (b. 1879 - d. 1943) KMT-WC 6 Jul 1943 - 15 Feb 1945 Wang Kemin (2nd time) (s.a.) Non-party 15 Feb 1945 - 16 Aug 1945 Wang Yintai(Wang Yin-t'ai) (b. 1886 - d. 1961) Non-party

Japanese Administrative Advisor to Provisional Government of the Republic of China (at Beijing) 27 Apr 1938 - 30 Mar 1940 Michio Yuzawa (b. 1888 - d. 1963) Japanese Special Envoy to the National Government of the Republic of China(at Nanjing) 1 Apr 1940 - 7 Dec 1940 Nobuyuki Abe (b. 1875 - d. 1953)Japanese Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Imperial Government of Japan to the National Government of China(at Nanjing) 26 Dec 1940 - 19 Dec 1941 Kumataro Honda (b. 1874 - d. 1948) Dec 1941 - 20 Apr 1943 Mamoru Shigemitsu (b. 1887 - d. 1957) 21 Apr 1943 - 10 Dec 1945 Masayuki Tani (b. 1889 - d. 1962)

Japanese Commanders of Shanghai Expeditionary Army15 Aug 1937 - 2 Dec 1937 Iwane Matsui (b. 1878 - d. 1948) 2 Dec 1937 - 14 Feb 1938 Prince Yasuhikō Asaka (b. 1887 - d. 1981)Commanders of China Expeditionary Army 22 Sep 1939 - 1 Mar 1941 Toshizō Nishio (b. 1881 - d. 1960) 1 Mar 1941 - 23 Nov 1944 Shūnroku Hata (b. 1879 - d. 1962) 23 Nov 1944 - 9 Sep 1945 Yasuji Okamura (b. 1884 - d. 1964)Commander of Central China Area Army30 Oct 1937 - 14 Feb 1938 Iwane Matsui (s.a.) Commanders of Central China Expeditionary Army14 Feb 1938 - 14 Dec 1938 Shunroku Hata (b. 1879 - d. 1962) 15 Sep 1938 - 23 Dec 1939 Otozō Yamada (b. 1881 - d. 1965) Commanders of Central District Army(to 1 Aug 1940, Central Defense Army) 2 Aug 1937 - 26 Aug 1937 Kesago Nakajima (b. 1881 - d. 1945)26 Aug 1937 - 28 Dec 1937 Shigeru Hasunuma (b. 1883 – d. 1954)28 Dec 1937 - 1 Aug 1939 Hisao Tani (b. 1882 - d. 1947) 1 Aug 1939 - 9 Mar 1940 WaichirōSonobe (IchiroSonobe) (b. 1883 – d. 1963) 9 Mar 1940 - 20 Jun 1941 Yoshio Iwamatsu (b. 1886 – d. 1958)20 Jun 1941 - 17 Aug 1942 Yōji Fujii (b. 1887 – d. 1945)17 Aug 1942 - 21 Feb 1944 Jun Ushiroku (b. 1884 - d. 1973) 21 Feb 1944 - 1 Dec 1944 Shōjirō Iida (b. 1888 - d. 1980) 1 Dec 1944 - 7 Apr 1945 Masakazu Kawabe (b. 1886 - d. 1965) 7 Apr 1945 - 30 Sep 1945 Eitarō Uchiyama (b. 1887 - d. 1973)Commanders of Northern China Area Army 26 Aug 1937 - 9 Dec 1938 Count Hisaichi Terauchi (b. 1879 - d. 1946) 9 Dec 1938 - 12 Sep 1939 Hajime Sugiyama (b. 1880 - d. 1945)12 Sep 1939 - 7 Jul 1941 Hayao Tada (b. 1882 - d. 1948) 7 Jul 1941 - 25 Aug 1944 Yasuji Okamura (s.a.)25 Aug 1944 - 22 Nov 1944 Noasaburō Okabe (b. 1886 - d. 1946) 22 Nov 1944 - 19 Aug 1945 Sadamu Shimomura (b. 1887 - d. 1968)19 Aug 1945 - 2 Sep 1945 Hiroshi Nemoto (b. 1891 - d. 1961) Commanders of Southern Area Army10 Feb 1940 - 5 Oct 1940 Rikichi Andō (b. 1884 - d. 1946) 5 Oct 1940 - 26 Jun 1941 Jun Ushiroku (s.a.) 6 Nov 1941 - 12 Sep 1945 Count Hisaichi Terauchi (s.a.)

East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Government

25 Nov 1935 East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Committeeestablished by Japanese forces as a buffer between the Republic of China and Manchukuo.25 Dec 1935 Renamed East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Government. 1 Feb 1938 Absorbed into the Japanese-sponsored Provisional Governmentof China atBeijing(Pei-ching).

Chairman of the East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Committee (at Tongzhou [T'ung-chou])25 Nov 1935 - 25 Dec 1935 Yin Rugeng (Yin Ju-keng) (b. 1885 - d. 1947) KMTDirectors of Government Affairs of the East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Government (at Tongzhou [T'ung-chou]; from Aug 1937, Tangshan [T'ang-shan])25 Dec 1935 -29 Jul 1937 Yin Rugeng (Yin Ju-keng) (s.a.) KMT 29 Jul 1937 - 1 Feb 1938 Chi Zongmo (Ch'ih Tsung-mo) (b. 1890 - d. 1951) Non-party?

Party abbreviations:KMT=Zhongguo Guomindang/Chung-kuo Kuo-min-tang (National Party of China, "Kuomintang", nationalist, republican, conservative, anti-Communist, 1 Jun 1931 - 28 Sep 1986 state party, est.23 Aug 1912-Nov 1913,re-formed.10 Oct 1919); KMT-WC=Zhongguo Guomindang-Wang Jingwei/Chung-kuo Kuo-min-tang - Wang Ching-wei (National Party of China- WangJingwei faction, anti-Communist,pan-Asianism, KMT/Chiang Kai-shek opposition, pro-Japanese, puppet government state party, 30 Mar 1940-16 Aug 1945); Mil = Military

	g" National Anthem of the Empire of Manchuria)	n gugNation's Foundation Song
])	) Yuan (CNMY) (		954 (1940) 0,880,00 (1934)
		(Russian 0.2% (19)
		Chinese folk-religionist, Korean folk-religionist, Shanrendao, Jewish

18 Sep 1931 Japanese invasion and occupation of Manchuria (North Eastern Provinces of China -Heilongjiang,Jilin, and Liaoning) begins.18 Feb 1932 North Eastern Provinces of China are declared independent by resolution of a conference of governors of the North Eastern provinces at Changchun,renamedXinjing (Hsin-ching)[Hsinking] on 13 Mar 1932. 1 Mar 1932 Manchuria (Chinese:Manzhouguo [Man-chou-kuo],in Japanese: Manshūkoku)(romanized as "Manchukuo"); achieving only limited international recognition¹.15 Sep 1932 Japan recognizes the Manchukuo state by Japan–Manchukuo Protocol. 21 Jan 1933 Jehol province ofChinaannexed toManchukuo. 1 Mar 1934 Empire of Manchuria (Chinese:Manzhoudiguo [Man-chou-ti-kuo], in Japanese:Manshū Teikoku)(Manchuria [Manzhouguo] also in official use). 1 Dec 1937 Japan renounces extraterritoriality in Manchukuo. 9 Aug 1945 Sovietinvasionbegins (Hailar andSuifenhe occupied on 9 Aug 1945; Mudanjiang on 16 Aug 1945;Harbin on 18 Aug 1945;Fengtian [Shenyang],Qiqihar [Tsitsihar],and Xinjing [Changchun] are occupied on 20 Aug 1945).17 Aug 1945 Abdication of the emperor proclaimed at the town of Dalizigou, Linjiang county in Tonghua province (now part of the city of Linjiang, Jilin Province).
17 Aug 1945 - 3 May 1946 Manchuria (Russian:Man'chzhuriya) occupied by the Soviet Union.JapaneseCommander, Kwantung Army 18 Sep 1931 -17 Feb1932 Baron Shigeru Honjō (b. 1876 - d. 1945) MilHead of the Administrative Committee of the Northeast17 Feb 1932 - 9 Mar 1932 Zhang Jinghui (Chang Ching-hui) (b. 1871 - d. 1959) Non-partyChief Executive 9 Mar 1932 - 1 Mar 1934 Puyi (P'u-i) (b. 1906 - d. 1967) 7-1932:CAM nianhao: Datong (Ta-t'ung)Emperor (Huangdi) 1 Mar 1934 - 17 Aug 1945 Puyi (s.a.) nianhao: Kangde (K'ang-te) (left Xinjing 11 Aug 1945, abdicated at Dalizigou 17 Aug 1945) (Soviet prisoner 17 Aug 1945 - 1 Aug 1950, Chinese prisoner 1 Aug 1950 - 4 Dec 1959)Commander-in-chiefof SovietForces in the Far East17 Aug 1945 - 3 May 1946 Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Vasilevskiy (b. 1895 - d. 1977) Mil

Prime Minister 9 Mar 1932- 1 Mar 1934 Zheng Xiaoxu (Cheng Hsiao-hsü) (b. 1860 - d. 1938) 7-1932:CAM (inauguration ceremony 10 Mar 1932)Ministers of State (prime ministers) 1 Mar 1934 - 21 May 1935 Zheng Xiaoxu (Cheng Hsiao-hsü) (s.a.) CAM21 May 1935 - 17 Aug 1945 Zhang Jinghui (Chang Ching-hui) (s.a.) CAM

Commanders, Kwantung Army (Kantō-gun) and (from15 Sep 1932) Japanese Ambassadors 1 Aug 1931 - 8 Aug 1932 Baron Shigeru Honjō (s.a.) Mil 8 Aug 1932 - 27 Jul 1933 Baron Nobuyoshi Mutō (b. 1868 - d. 1933) Mil29 Jul 1933 - 10 Dec 1934 Takashi Hishikari (b. 1871 - d. 1952) Mil10 Dec 1934 - 6 Mar 1936 Jirō Minami (s.a.) Mil 6 Mar 1936 - 7 Sep 1939 Kenkichi Ueda (b. 1875 - d. 1962) Mil 7 Sep 1939 - 18 Jul 1944 Yoshijirō Umezu (b. 1882 - d. 1949) Mil18 Jul 1944 - 17 Aug 1945 Otozō Yamada (b. 1881 - d. 1965) Mil

Party abbreviations:CAM = Manzhouguo Xiehehui/Man-chou-kuo Hsieh-ho-hui (Concordia Association of Manchukuo, fascist, monarchist, Manchurian nationalist, pan-Asianism, anti-communist, Puyi personalist, only officially sanctioned political party, 25 Jul 1932 - 18 Aug 1945); Mil = Military

¹Manchukuo was onlyrecognized by the following countries: Japan (15 Sep 1932), El Salvador (3 Mar 1934),Italy (20 Nov 1937),Spain (2 Dec 1937), Germany (12 May 1938),Hungary (14 Jan 1939), Slovakia (1 Jun 1939),Poland (19 Oct 1939), Rumania (3 Dec 1940), Bulgaria (14 May 1941), Finland (19 Jul 1941), Denmark (Aug 1941),Thailand (1 Aug 1941) andCroatia (2 Aug 1941); along with theJapanese sponsored governments -Wang Jingwei'sNational Government of China (30 Nov 1940), PhilippineRepublic ofJosé Laurel (1943), andtheProvisional Government of Free India of Subhas Chandra Bose (1944).The Holy See(Vatican City) sent a representativead tempus responsible for religious missions(18 Apr 1934), but did not formally recognize Manchukuo's independence.The Soviet Union extended de facto recognition on 23 Mar 1935, but explicitly noted that this did not mean de jure recognition. Upon signing the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact on 13 Apr 1941 (denounced by the USSR 5 Apr 1945), the USSR pledged to respect the territorial integrity and inviolability of Manchoukuo and Japan pledged to respect the territorial integrity and inviolability of the Mongolia.


- 29 Oct 193


- 1 Sep 193


- 19 Aug 1945

Chang-chia-k'ou)[Kalgan]
1 Sep 1939-19 Aug 1945;
1937 - 1 Sep 1939; Jabsar [Huade]
12 May 1936-27 Oct 1937

(CNPM)

Population: 7,174,200 (1936)

1936 - 1945 Chahar, Suiyuan, and the northern part of Shanxi provinces under Japaneseoccupation.12 May 1936 Military Government of Mongolia (or Mongolian Military Government) (Menggu jun zhengfu) established in Jabsar (Huade) bypro- Japanese Mongol elements.27 Oct 1937 Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Union (Menggu lianmeng zizhi zhengfu). 22 Nov 1937 United Committee of the Mongolian Border Region(Mengjiang lianhe weiyuanhui) formedby the Autonomous Government of South Chahar, theAutonomous Government of North Shanxi,and the Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Union(referred in short as "Mengjiang" [Meng-chiang]; also referred to as"Mengguguo" or "Mengkukuo" in analogy to Manzhouguo [Manchoukuo] the Manchurian Japanese puppet government). 1 Sep 1939 United Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Border (Mengjiang Lianhe Zizhi Zhengfu/Mongghol un öbertegen jasaqu qolboyatu jasay un ordon). 4 Aug 1941 Autonomous State of Mongolia (Menggu zizhi bang). From 1942 an autonomous region of theJapanese-sponsored National Government of China atNanjing. 9 Aug 1945 Soviet–Mongolian joint motor division enters Inner Mongolia. 19 Aug 1945 Government dissolves with the departure of Dewang. 21 Aug 1945 Zhangjiakou [Kalgan] occupied by Soviet forces.

Chairman of the Military Government of Mongolia 24 May 1936 - 28 Oct 1937 Yunduan Wang Chu Ke (= Yun Wang) (b. 1871 - d. 1938) (Yün-tuan Wang Ch'u K'o) Chairman of the Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Union 28 Oct 1937 - 22 Nov 1937 Yunduan Wang Chu Ke (= Yun Wang) (s.a.) Chairmen of theUnited Committee of the Mongolian Border Region 22 Nov 1937 - 24 Mar 1938 Yunduan Wang Chu Ke (= Yun Wang) (s.a.) 24 Mar 1938 - 1 Sep 1939 Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang" (b. 1902 - d. 1966) (Te-mu-ch'u-k'o-tung-lu-p'u) (= Demchigdonrov) Chairman of the United Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Border 1 Sep 1939 - 4 Aug 1941 Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang" (s.a.) Chairman of the Autonomous State of Mongolia 4 Aug 1941 - 19 Aug 1945 Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang" (s.a.) (Mongolian prisoner Feb-18 Sep 1950; Chinese prisoner 18 Sep 1950-1963)Vice-chairman of the Executive Council of the Military Government of Mongolia 8 Jan 1936 - 28 Oct 1937 Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang" (s.a.) (Te-mu-ch'u-k'o-tung-lu-p'u) (= Demchigdonrov) Director of the Executive Branch of the Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Union 28 Oct 1937 -22 Nov 1937 Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang" (s.a.)Vice-chairman and Director of the Executive Branch of United Committee of the Mongolian Border Region 22 Nov 1937 -24 Mar 1938 Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang" (s.a.)Deans of the Council of State Affairs of the United Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Border (from 4 Aug 1941, Autonomous State of Mongolia) 1 Sep 1939 - Jun 1941 Jodovjav(=Zhuotebazhabu) (b. 1873 - d. 1947) (Zhuo Shihai [Cho Shih-hai])Jun 1941 - 1944 Ünenbayan (Wu Heling [Wu Ho-ling])(b. 1896 - d. 1979) 1944 - 19 Aug 1945 Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang" (s.a.)

Japanese Supreme Advisors27 Oct 1937 - 27 Nov 1941 Shōji Kanai(= Altan Khudagh) (b. 1886 - d. 1967)27 Nov 1941 - 3 Sep 1942 Chuichi Ohashi (b. 1893 - d. 1975)26 Feb 1945 - Aug 1945 Shōichi Kanki (b. 1897 - d. 1964)JapaneseGeneral Officers Commanding the Mongolia Garrison Army(Chūmōgun) (subordinated to the commanders of the Northern China Area Army) 28 Dec 1937 - 31 Aug 1939 Shigeru Hasunuma (b. 1883 - d. 1954) (of the Mongolia Garrison Group to 4 Jul 1938) 31 Aug 1939 - 12 Sep 1939 Hajime Sugiyama (b. 1880 - d. 1945)12 Sep 1939 - 29 Sep 1940 Noasaburō Okabe (b. 1886 - d. 1946) 29 Sep 1940 - 20 Jan 1941 Masataka Yamawaki (b. 1886 - d. 1974)20 Jan 1941 - 2 Mar 1942 Shigetaro Amakasu (b. 1887 - d. 1958) 2 Mar 1942 - 28 May 1943 IchirōShichida (b. 1886 - d. 1957)28 May 1943 - 22 Nov 1944 Yoshio Kōzuki (b. 1886 - d. 1971)22 Nov 1944 - 19 Aug 1945 Hiroshi Nemoto (b. 1891 - d. 1961)

Transliteration note: Names are given in Hanyu Pinyin romanization, without tone-marking diacritics (the first edition of Hanyu Pinyin was approved and adopted by China on 11 Feb 1958).Prior to 1979, names are given in the olderWade-Gilesromanization inparentheses, i.e.Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung).

1 Oct 1949 People's Republic of China (Zhonghua renmin gongheguo [Chung-huajen-min kung-ho-kuo]).

Note: Deng Xiaoping (Teng Hsiao-p'ing)(b. 1904 - d. 1997) was de facto leader from the late 1970's to the early 1990's. He did not take over the chairmanship of the State, the Government or the General Secretary of the Party, but from 1978 to his death 19 Feb 1997 he was the unquestionable Paramount Leader. He was Chairman of the Military Affairs Committee 22 Dec 1978 - 9 Nov 1989; he rose to power after being rehabilitated in Jul 1977 and became more and more frail in the 1990's (his last public appearance was9 Feb 1994).

Chairmen of the Central Committee of theCommunist Party of China 20 Mar 1943 - 9 Sep 1976 Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) (b. 1893 - d. 1976) 9 Sep 1976 - 29 Jun 1981 Hua Guofeng (Hua Kuo-feng) (b. 1921 - d. 2008) (acting to 9 Oct 1976) 29 Jun 1981 - 12 Sep 1982 Hu Yaobang (Hu Yao-pang) (b. 1915 - d. 1989)General Secretariesof the Central Committee of theCommunist Party of China(top party post from 12 Sep 1982)29 Feb 1980 - 16 Jan 1987 Hu Yaobang (s.a.)16 Jan 1987 - 24 Jun 1989 Zhao Ziyang (acting to 2 Nov 1987) (b. 1919 - d. 2005) 24 Jun 1989 - 15 Nov 2002 Jiang Zemin (b. 1926 - d. 2022)15 Nov 2002 - 15 Nov 2012 Hu Jintao (b. 1942) 15 Nov 2012 - Xi Jinping (b. 1953)Chairman of the Central People's Government 1 Oct 1949 - 27 Sep 1954 Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) (s.a.) CPCChairmen¹27 Sep 1954 - 27 Apr 1959 Mao Zedong (s.a.) CPC27 Apr 1959 - 31 Oct 1968 Liu Shaoqi (Liu Shao-ch'i) (b. 1898 - d. 1969) CPC31 Oct 1968 - 24 Feb 1972 Dong Biwu (Tung Pi-wu) (b. 1886 - d. 1975) CPC + Song Qingling (f) (b. 1893 - d. 1981) CPC (Sung Ch'ing-ling) (acting) 24 Feb 1972 - 17 Jan 1975 Dong Biwu (acting) (s.a.) CPCChairmen of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress17 Jan 1975 - 6 Jul 1976 Zhu De (Chu Te) (b. 1886 - d. 1976) CPC 6 Jul 1976 - 5 Mar 1978 Vacant² 5 Mar 1978 - 18 Jun 1983 Ye Jianying (Yeh Chien-ying) (b. 1897 - d. 1986) CPCPresidents¹18 Jun 1983 - 8 Apr 1988 Li Xiannian (b. 1909 - d. 1992) CPC 8 Apr 1988 - 27 Mar 1993 Yang Shangkun (b. 1907 - d. 1998) CPC27 Mar 1993 - 15 Mar 2003 Jiang Zemin (s.a.) CPC15 Mar 2003 - 14 Mar 2013 Hu Jintao (s.a.) CPC 14 Mar 2013 - Xi Jinping (s.a.) CPC

Premier of the Government Administration Council of the Central People's Government 1 Oct 1949 - 27 Sep 1954 Zhou Enlai (Chou En-lai) (b. 1898 - d. 1976) CPC Premiers of the State Council27 Sep 1954 - 8 Jan 1976 Zhou Enlai (s.a.) CPC 8 Jan 1976 - 2 Feb 1976 Vacant³ 2 Feb 1976 - 10 Sep 1980 Hua Guofeng (Hua Kuo-feng) (s.a.) CPC (acting to 7 Apr 1976)10 Sep 1980 - 24 Nov 1987 Zhao Ziyang (s.a.) CPC24 Nov 1987 - 17 Mar 1998 Li Peng (acting to 9 Apr 1988) (b. 1928 - d. 2019) CPC17 Mar 1998 - 16 Mar 2003 Zhu Rongji (b. 1928) CPC16 Mar 2003 - 15 Mar 2013 Wen Jiabao (b. 1942) CPC15 Mar 2013 - 11 Mar 2023 Li Keqiang (b. 1955 - d. 2023) CPC 11 Mar 2023 - Li Qiang (b. 1959) CPC

The title "chairman" for the heads of state in 1954-1975 represents the same Chinese term (zhuxi) that is commonly translated "president" for the heads of state after 1983.

Deputy Chairmen of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress during the vacancy: Wu De (b. 1914 - d. 1995)(mostly performed the chairman's functions), Song Qingling (f)(s.a.), Liu Bocheng (b. 1892 - d. 1986), Wei Guoqing (b. 1913 - d. 1989), Saifuding Aizezi (Seypidin)(b. 1915 - d. 2003), Chen Yun (b. 1905 - d. 1995), Tan Zhenlin (b. 1902 - d. 1983), Li Jingquan (b. 1909 - d. 1989), Ulanhu (b. 1906 - d. 1988), Guo Moruo (b. 1892 - d. 1978), Xu Xiangqian (b. 1901 - d. 1990), Nie Rongzhen (b. 1899 - d. 1992), Zhang Dingcheng (b. 1898 - d. 1981), Cai Chang (f)(b. 1900 - d. 1990), Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme (b. 1910 - d. 2009), Zhou Jianren (b. 1888 - d. 1984), Xu Deheng (b. 1890 - d. 1990), Hu Juewen (b. 1895 - d. 1989), Li Suwen (f) (b. 1933 - d. 2022), Yao Lianwei (b. 1935 - d. 2012), and from 2 Dec 1976, Deng Yingchao (f)(b. 1904 - d. 1992).

Vice-Premiersof the State Council acting during the vacancy:Deng Xiaoping (s.a.), Li Xiannian (s.a.), Chen Xilian (b. 1915 - d. 1999), Ji Dengkui (b. 1923 - d. 1988), Hua Guofeng (s.a.), Chen Yonggui (b. 1915 - d. 1986), Wu Guixian (f)(b. 1938), Wang Zhen (b. 1908 - d. 1993), Yu Qiuli (b. 1914 - d. 1999), Gu Mu (b. 1914 - d. 2009), and Sun Jian (b. 1936 - d. 1997).

Party abbreviations:CPC = Zhongguo Gongchandang (Communist Party of China,communist, authoritarian, Chinese nationalist, Marxist-Leninist,state party from 1 Oct 1949,est.23 Jul 1921); Mil = Military

Taiwan is claimed by People's Republic of China; China and India continue their security and foreign policy dialogue started in 2005 related to a number of boundary disputes across the 2,000 mile shared border; India does not recognize Pakistan's 1964 ceding to China of the Aksai Chin, a territory designated as part of the princely state of Kashmir by the British Survey of India in 1865; China and India continue their security and foreign policy dialogue started in 2005 related to a number of boundary disputes across the 2,000 mile shared border; China claims most of the Indian state Arunachal Pradesh to the base of the Himalayas, but The U.S. recognizes the state of Arunachal Pradesh as Indian territory; Bhutan and China continue negotiations to establish a common boundary alignment to resolve territorial disputes arising from substantial cartographic discrepancies, the most contentious of which lie in Bhutan's west along China's Chumbi salient; Chinese maps show an international boundary symbol off the coasts of the littoral states of the South China Seas, where China has interrupted Vietnamese hydrocarbon exploration; China asserts sovereignty over Scarborough Reef along with the Philippines and Taiwan, and over theSpratly Islands together with Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Brunei; the 2002 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea eased tensions in the Spratlys, and in 2017 China and ASEAN began confidential negotiations for an updated Code of Conduct for the South China Sea designed not to settle territorial disputes but establish rules and norms in the region; this still is not the legally binding code of conduct sought by some parties; Vietnam and China continue to expand construction of facilities in the Spratlys and in early 2018 China deployed advanced military systems to disputed Spratly outposts; China occupies some of theParacel Islands also claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; China and Taiwan continue to reject both Japan's claims to the uninhabited islands of Senkaku-shoto (Diaoyu Tai)and in 23 Nov 2013 China's declaration of an "air defense identification zone" in an area that includes islands and Japan's unilaterally declared equidistance line in the East China Sea, the site of intensive hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation; certain islands in the Yalu and Tumen rivers are in dispute with North Korea; North Korea and China seek to stem illegal migration to China by North Koreans, fleeing privation and oppression; China and Russia have demarcated the once disputed islands at the Amur and Ussuri confluence and in the Argun River in accordance with their 2004 Agreement; China and Tajikistan have begun demarcating the revised boundary agreed to in the delimitation of 2002; the decade-long demarcation of the China-Vietnam land boundary was completed in 2009; citing environmental, cultural, and social concerns, China has reconsidered construction of 13 dams on the Salween River, but energy-starved Burma, with backing from Thailand, remains intent on building five hydro-electric dams downstream despite regional and international protests; Hong Kong plans to reduce its 2,800-hectare Frontier Closed Area (FCA) to 400 hectares by 2015, the FCA was established in 1951 as a buffer zone between Hong Kong and mainland China to prevent illegal migration from and the smuggling of goods; China may have constructed 11 buildings in Nepal's Humla region in 2021.

Communist Regional Governments of Northern China (1948-1949)

26 Sep 1948 People's Government of North China (dissolved 31 Oct 1949). 27 Aug 1949 People's Government of the Northeast (dissolved 23 Jan 1953). 1 Oct 1949 People's Republic of China (PRC) established, the regional governments fall under it and are later dissolved. Chairman of the People's Government of North China26 Sep 1948 - 1 Oct 1949 Dong Biwu (Tung Pi-wu) (b. 1886 - d. 1975) CPC (continues under PRC to 31 Oct 1949)

Chairman of the People's Government of the Northeast27 Aug 1949 - 1 Oct 1949 Gao Gang (Kao Kang) (b. 1895 - d. 1954) CPC (continues under PRC to 23 Jan 1953)

(Yining) 1] to 1757, 1865-1877, 1933-1934

1347 Mogholistan Khanate (capital Almalik [modern Ghulja], later Turpan), split from Djagataide (Chagatai) Khanate. 1514 Khanate of Kashgaria (capital Yarkand, from 1596 Kashgar) founded from southern part of Mogholistan Khanate, the northern part of Mogholistan is later known asTurpanKhanate (annexed bythe Dörben Oyirad [Dzungars] in 1690).17th cent. Divided into several minor khanates (Alti Shahar "Six Cities") without importance under Djagataide rulers, real power going to the so-called theKhwaja, Arabic Islamic religious leaders.1678 Hidayat Allah Hazrat Afaqi of theAq Taghliq ("White Khwajas"), based in Kashgar, with the help of the Dzungars, ousted the rival Qara Taghliq ("Black Khwajas"), based in Yarkand, becoming the real ruler of Kashgaria under Dzungar (Dörben Oyirad) protection.1694 - 1720 Occupied by and under the suzerainty ofDörben Oyirad (last Djagataide khans deposed: in Kashgar in 1696, in Yarkand in 1705). 1754 Kashgaria independent from the Dzungars. 1758 Xinjiang (Hsin-chiang)[Sinkiang] annexed by Qing (Ch'ing) Empire, with a governor-general at Ghulja (see underChina provinces). Jul 1759 Kashgaria occupied by the Qing (Ch'ing) Empire (Kashgar from 1757, and Yarkand from 1759).May 1826 - 1828 Aq Taghliq rebellion in Kashgar, supported by Kokand troops (also in Sep 1830, 1846, and May 1857). 1864 Khanate of Qäshqäriyä (Kashgaria), detached from the Qing Empire. Minor khanates or sultanates established in Kucha, Khotan, Urumchi (Ürümqi)(all annexed by Kashgaria by 1870) and Ghulja.1870 Polity renamedJiti Shahar ("Seven Cities"). 4 Jul 1871 - Feb 1881 Ghulja (Ili basin) occupied by Russia under Gerasim Alekseyevich Kolpakovskiy (b. 1819 - d. 1896)(Ili is subordinated to Russian Turkestan), sultanate of Ghulja abolished. 1872 Kashgarian trade treaty with Russia (in 1874 also with United Kingdom), polity formally not recognized. 28 Dec 1877 Kashgaria re-incorporated into Qing Empire (Urumchi taken in 1876).12 Nov 1933 - 6 Feb 1934 Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan (in rebellion) (also known originally as 'Uighuristan' or 'Turkic Islamic Republic of East Turkestan'). 6 Feb 1934 Re-incorporation into China declared.12 Nov 1944 - 16 Jun 1946 East Turkestan Republic (in rebellion).16 Jun 1946 Re-incorporated into China as autonomous "Three Districts" (also referred to as the Ili region), within Xinjiang province. Independence set aside by the agreement of 2 Jan 1946.15 Aug 1949 Communist rule recognized by agreement, the Three Districts fully disbanded by Nov 1949. 1 Oct 1955 Creation ofXinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.

Khans of Yarkand1695 - 1705 Muhammad Mumin Akbash Khan 1705 - 1720 Daniyal KhwajaKhans of Kashgar1696 - 1720 Ahmad Khwaja (d. af.1720)1720 - 1754 Daniyal Khwaja1754 - 1757 Yusuf Khwaja ibn Daniyal1757 `Abd Allah Badshah Khwaja ibn Yusuf1757 - Jul 1759 Burhan ad-Din Khwaja ibn Ahmad (d. 1760) (in Yarkand) Jul 1759 - 1864 direct Qing rule (see Xinjiang) May 1826 - 1828 Jahangir Khwaja (in rebellion) (b. 1788 - d. 1828)Sep 1830 - Dec 1830 Muhammad Yusuf Khwaja (in rebellion)1846 (45 days) Ihsan Khwaja (in rebellion) May 1857 - Aug 1857 Wali Khan Khwaja (in rebellion) (d. 1865)Khans of Kashgaria 1864 - Feb 1865 Qutlugh BegFeb 1865 - 1866 Buzurg Khwaja ibn Jahangir (1st time)1866 Muhammad Amin Khwaja ibn Jahangir1866 - 1867 Buzurg Khwaja ibn Jahangir (2nd time)1867 - 6 Dec 1873 Muhammad Ya`qub Beg ibn Pir (b. c.1820 - d. 1877) Muhammad Mirza Amir Khansof Jiti Shahar 6 Dec 1873 - 29 May 1877 Muhammad Ya`qub Beg ibn Pir (s.a.) Muhammad Mirza 29 May 1877 - 28 Dec 1877 Quli Beg (b. 1821 - d. 1877)President of the Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan12 Nov 1933 - 6 Feb 1934 Khwaja Niyaz Haji (Xoca Niyaz Haci)(b. 1887 - d. 1938) Mil (took office 13 Jan 1934)President of the East Turkestan Republic12 Nov 1944 - 16 Jun 1946 Alikhan Tore (b. 1884 - d. 1976) Non-party?Chairman of the Government of Three Districts(Ili region) 18 Jun 1946 - Nov 1949 Jahangir Hakim Bek Khwaja (b. c.1873–d.af.1950)DLPS?

Prime minister12 Nov 1933 - 6 Feb 1934 Sabit Damolla Abdulbaki (b. 1883 - d. 1934) ETIA (continues to Apr 1934 at Yangi Hissar [Yengisar])

Party abbrevations:DLPS = Xinjiang Democratic League of Peace Safeguarding (included Democratic Revolutionary Party and other groups, 1948-1949);ETIA = East Turkestan Independence Association (until 1933 as Committee for National Revolution, 1932-1934)

Dörben Oyirad (Dzungaria)

c.1620 Dörben Oyirad ("Four Confederates") or Dzungar Oriot state (at the largest extent covering Xinjiang region of China, Kyrgyzstan,easternKazakhstan, southern Siberia, and western Mongolia,capital - Kubakseray [modern Tacheng], later in Ghulja). 2 Dec 1717 - 24 Sep 1720 Tibet under suzerainty of theDörben Oyirad.1755 Chinese annexation. 4 Oct 1755 - 4 Oct 1757 Rebellion against Chinese suzerainty.Mar 1756 Declared re-annexed byChina.

Supreme Rulers (titleKhong Tayiji)[often referred to as Khans] 1634 - 1653 Erdeni Batur (d. 1653) 1653 - 1671 Sengge (b. c.1630 - d. 1671) 1671 - 1676 Tseten (d. 1676) 1676 - 3 May 1697 Galdan (b. 1644 - d. 1697) (from 1679, personal style Boshugtu Khan, granted by Dalai Lama)1697 - 1727 Tsewang Rabdan (b. 1663 - d. 1727)1727 - Aug/Sep 1745 Galdan Tseren (b. 1695 - d. 1745)1745 - 1750 Tsewang Dorji Namrgyal (b. 1732 - d. 1750)1750 - 1753 Lamdarjaa (Lama Dorji) (b. 1728 - d. 1753)1753 - 1755 Dawaachi (DawaQi) (d. 1759)1755 Bandi (Pan-ti)-Chinese Commissioner (d. 1755) Oct 1755 - 4 Oct 1757 Amursana (in rebellion) (b. 1722 - d. 1757)

Qomul (Kumul)

1647 Split fromthe Turpankhanate, becomes a Qing (Ch'ing) tributary. 1670 - 1698 Vassal oftheDörben Oyirad (Dzungars)(s.a.).1698 - 1757 Vassal of the Qing (Ch'ing) Empire (called "Hami" by the Chinese). 1757 Incorporated into China (khans continue rule). 1931 Khanate abolished by the Xinjiang provincial government.20 Feb 1931 - Jul? 1934 Rebellion against the Xinjiang provincial government.

Khans(with the Mongol titleJasak Darhan)1698 - 1709 AbdullahBeg (d. 1709)1709 - 1711 Gopa Beg (d. 1711)1711 - 1739 Amin (d. 1739)1739 - 1767 Yusuf (d. 1767)1767 - 1779 Ishaq (d. 1779)1779 - 1813 Ardashir (d. 1813)1813 - 1866 Baighir (d. 1866)1866 Ishaq Khwaja (in rebellion)1866 - 1881 Mahmud Shah (d. 1881)1881 - Mar 1930 Maqsud Shah (b. 1864 - d. 1930)1930 - 1931 Nasir Shah (d. 1934)Feb 1931 - 1934 Yulbars Khan (b. 1888 - d. 1971) (in rebellion, in the name of Nasir Shah)

Vizier 1922 - Mar 1930 Yulbars Khan (s.a.)



(1949) 4,000 (1914)

641 AD Tibetan state formed, according to tradition.842 - 1216 Era of fragmentation, central authority collapses. 1247 - 1368 Under Mongol (from 1271, Yuan dynasty) rule.1641 - 2 Dec 1717 Under suzerainty of the Qoshot(Khoshut) Khanate.1642 Güshi Khan formally recognizes the Fifth Dalai Lama's authority, effectively making him the temporal ruler of all Tibet.1680 Former Guge kingdom in Western Tibet annexed by Tibet. 2 Dec 1717 - 24 Sep 1720 Under suzerainty of theDörben Oyirad (Dzungar Khanate).24 Sep 1720 Under suzerainty of the Qing (Ch'ing)(Chinese) Empire. 2 Jun 1789 Makes a tributary payment toNepal.24 Mar 1856 - 7 Sep 1904 Makes tributary payments toNepal. 3 Aug 1904 - 23 Sep 1904 Lhasa occupied byBritish forces under Francis E. Younghusband (b. 1863 - d. 1942). 7 Sep 1904 Treaty of Lhasa allows the U.K to trade in Yadong (Yatung), Gyantse, and Gartok while Tibet is to pay a large indemnity, with the Chumbi Valley occupied (to8 Feb 1908)by U.K. until payment is received. Tibet is prevented from having relations with any other foreign powers. 27 Apr 1906 U.K. agrees not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet, while China engaged not to permit any other foreign state to interfere within the territory of Tibet.31 Aug 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention bound both the contracting countries to respect the territorial integrity of Tibet and to abstain from interference in its internal administration (ratified 23 Sep 1907). 12-25 Feb 1910 Chinese General Zhao Erfeng (Chao Erh-feng) conquers Eastern Tibet and occupies Lhasa, expelling the Dalai Lama and overthrowing the Tibetan government. Dec 1911 Chinese forces are driven eastward from Lhasa following the Chinese revolution and the Dalai Lama returns from exile in Jun 1912. 4 Apr 1912 Kingdom of Tibet declares its independence from the newly formed Republic of China.17 Aug 1912 In Memorandum to the Chinese government, the U.K. accepts Chinese suzerainty over Tibet if China repudiates all claims that Tibet is an integral part of China and agrees not to station troops. 2 Feb 1913 Treaty of friendship and alliance between the governments of Mongolia and Tibet signed. 3 Jul 1914 Simla Convention initialed by delegations from U.K., Tibet, and China. The U.K. agreed to recognize Chinese suzerainty over all of Tibet. Tibet is to be divided into Outer Tibet, which is to be autonomous and China would refrain from interference in its administration and Inner Tibet (eastern Kham and Amdo) where Lhasa would retain control of religious matters only. The McMahon Line is agreed to as the effective boundary between China and British India (China refuses to ratify the convention).Nov 1946 Tibetan delegates refuse to sign Chinese Constitution of 1947. 8 Jul 1949 Tibet ejects the Nationalist (KMT)representatives ofChina. 7 Oct 1950 People's Republic of China government forces intervention.23 May 1951 Re-incorporation into China completed (seeTibetan region).

Note: Although the dates are firm in the Tibetan calendar, the correspondence between the Tibetan and the Gregorian calendars is only approximate, as are, consequently, the datesgiven here.

Secular rulers (title Junwang, usually translated king)1642 - 14 Jan 1655 Güshi (Gushri) Khan (b. 1582 - d. 1655) 1656 - 12 Mar 1668 Dayan Khan (d. 1668)1668 - 1671 Dali Khung Taiji Dashi (d. 1714) Batur -Regent 1671 - 1700 Gonchug Dalai Khan (d. 1700) 1701 - 1703 sDe-srid Sangs rgyas-rgya-mtsho (b. 1653 - d. 1705) (= Sanggye Gyatso) -Regent1703 - 2 Dec 1717 'Lha-bzang Khan (d. 1717) 2 Dec 1717 - 24 Sep 1720 sTag-rtse-pa lha-rgyal-rab-brtan (d. 1720) (regent)(= Tagtsepa Lhagyel Raben)1728 - 12 Mar 1747 Pho-lha-nas bSod-nams-stobs-rgyas (b. c.1689 - d. 1747) "Mi-dbang Pho-lha" (= Miwang Pholhanas Sönam Tobgye) (administrator to11 Jan 1740)1747 - 11 Nov 1750 Pho-lha-nas 'Gyur-med-rnam-rgyal (d. 1750) "Ta-la'i-ba-dur" (= Gyurme Namgyel) Dalai Lamas14 Jul 1679 - 1703 sDe-srid Sangs rgyas-rgya-mtsho (s.a.) (= Sanggye Gyatso) (adminstrator to 1683, then regent) 8 Dec 1697 - 27 Jun 1706 Rin-chen-blo-bzang-rig-'dzins- tshangs-dbyangs-rgya-mtsho (6th Dalai Lama) (b. 1683 - d. 1706)1703 - 1706 sDe-srid Ngag-dbang Rin-chen -Regent (= Ngawang Rinchen)27 Jun 1706 - 1707 Vacant1707 - 1717 Ngag-dbang-ye-shes-rgya-mtsho (b. 1681/5 - d. 1723) (usurping Dalai Lama)1717 - 24 Sep 1720 sTag-rtse-zhabs-drung-Regent (= Taktse Shabdrung)24 Sep 1720 - 1721 Yanxin -Chinese military commander (Yen-hsin) 16 Oct 1720 - 22 Mar 1757 rGyal-dbang-blo-bzang-bskal- bzang-rgya-mtsho (7th Dalai Lama) (b. 1708 - d. 1757) (ritually presumed to have ruled from 1708)22 Mar 1757 - 29 Apr 1757 Council of Ministers29 Apr 1757 - 28 Aug 1762 De-mo sprul-sku Ngag-dbang-'jam- (d. 1770) dpal-bde-legs-rgya-mtsho-Regent28 Aug 1762 - 19 Nov 1804 Blo-bzang-'jam-dpal-rgya-mtsho (8th Dalai Lama) (b. 1758 - d. 1804)1804 - 5 Mar 1808 Kun-bde-gling rTa-tshag-rje-drung- (d. 1810) sprul-sku Ye-shes-blo-bzang- bstan-pa'i-mgon-po-Regent 5 Mar 1808 - 26 Mar 1815 Blo-bzang-lung-rtogs-rgya-mtsho (9th Dalai Lama) (b. 1806 - d. 1815)1815 - 28 Mar 1819 De-mo sPrul-sku Blo-bzang-thub- bstan-'jigs-med-rgya- (d. 1819) mtsho-Regent 30 Mar 1819 - 6 Feb 1822 mTsho-smon-gling sPrul-sku (d. 1844) Ngag-dbang-'jam-dpal-tshul-khrims (1st time)-Regent 6 Feb 1822 - 30 Sep 1837 Blo-bzang-tshul-khrims-rgya-mtsho (10th Dalai Lama) (b. 1816 - d. 1837)30 Sep 1837 - 29 Sep 1841 mTsho-smon-gling sPrul-sku (s.a.) Ngag-dbang-'jam-dpal-tshul-khrims (2nd time)-Regent29 Sep 1841 - 31 Jan 1856 Blo-bzang-mkhas'-grub-rgya-mtsho (11th Dalai Lama) (b. 1838 - d. 1856)31 Jan 1856 - 1856 Council of Ministers1856 - 26 Feb 1858 Rva-sgreng sPrul-sku Ngag-dbang- (d. 1888) ye-shes-tshul-khrims-rgyal- mtshan-Regent26 Feb 1858 - 25 Apr 1875 Ngag-dbang-blo-bzang-'phrin-las- rgya-mtsho (12th Dalai Lama) (b. 1856 - d. 1875)25 Apr 1875 - 1875 Council of Ministers1875 - 12 Feb 1878 Kun-bde-gling sPrul-sku rTa-tshag- (d. 1886) rje-drung-ngag-dbang-dpal-ldan- chos-kyi-rgyal-mtshan-Regent12 Feb 1878 - 17 Dec 1933 Ngag-dbang-blo-bzang-thub-bstan- rgya-mtsho-'jigs-bral-dbang-phyug- phyogs-las-rnam-rgyal (13th Dalai Lama) (b. 1876 - d. 1933) (30 Jul 1904 - Dec 1909 in Mongolia, later China exile; 25 Feb 1910 - Jun 1912 in India exile)30 Jul 1904 - 1910 Ganden Tripa Rinpoche Lobsang (b. 1840 - d. 1910) Gyaltsen -Administrator (for exiled Dalai Lama) 23 Feb 1910 - 1913 Gaden Tripa Ngawang Lobsang (b. 1844 - d. 1919?) Gyaltsen Tenpey-Administrator (for exiled Dalai Lama) 17 Dec 1933 - Jan 1934 Council of MinistersJan 1934 - 25 Aug 1939 Rva-sgreng sPrul-sku Thub-bstan- (b. 1911 - d. 1947) 'jam-dpal-ye-shes-rgyal-mtshan -Regent (regent [for the Dalai Lama to 16 Jan 1941])25 Aug 1939 - rJe-btsun-'Jam-dpal-ngag-dbang- blo-bzang-ye-shes-bstan-'dzin- rgya-mtsho (14th Dalai Lama) (b. 1935) (Head of state Mar 1951 - Mar 1959) (from 31 Mar 1959 in exile [from 1 May 1960 in Dharamsala, India])16 Jan 1941 - 1950 Stag-brag ngag-dbang gsung-rab-Regent (=Taktra Rimpoche Sungrab Ngawang)(b. 1874 - d. 1952) 31 Mar 1959 - Dec 1964 Bskal-bzang Tshe-brtan -Head of state (10th Panchen Lama) (b. 1938 - d. 1989) Chinese Military Commander-in-chiefJan 1951 - Feb 1967 Zhang Guohua (Chang Kuo-hua) (b. 1914 - d. 1972)

Chief ministers (Lönchen) 1903 - 1912 Tsarong Wangchuk Gyalpo (d. c.1912) 1907 - 1920 Chankhyim Trekhang Thupten Shakya (b. 18.. - d. 1920) (= Ngawang Khyenrab Palsang) (ngag-dbang mkhyen-rab dpal-bzang) 1907 - 2 Jan 1919 Shatra Paljor Dorje (b. c.1860 - d. 1919) (dpal-byor-rdo-rje) 1907 - 1926 Sholkhang Dhondup Phuntsog (b. 1862 - d. 1926) (Sho-kang Lzhol-khang) Ministers of state(Silön) 1926 - Apr 1939 Lonchhen Yapshi Langdun Kung (b. 1906 - d. 1980) (yab-gzhis glang-mdun gung) (= Kunga Wangchhuk) 17 Nov 1950 - 27 Apr 1952 Lobsang Tashi (blo-bzang bkra-shis)(b. 1897 - d. 1966) + Lukhangwa (= Tsewang Rabden) (b. 1895 - d. 1966) (klu-khang-ba tshe-dbang rab-brtan)ChineseAmbans (Grand Minister Residents of Tibet)([Zhuzang Dachen] representatives of the Emperors at the courts of Dalai and Panchen Lamas)1709 - 1711 Ho Shou (Ho-shou) -Envoy (d. 1719)1711 - 1720 Vacant24 Sep 1720 - 1721 Yanxin (Yen-hsin) -Military commandant1721 - 1723 Ts'eban Norbu -Military commandant (Ts'e-pan No'r-p'u) 1723 - 1724 Orai (O-lai)1724 - 1726 Vacant1726 Oci(O-t'zu) + Bandi (Pan-ti)(1st time) (d. 1755)1726 - 1727 Vacant 1727 - 1733 Sengg'e(Seng-ke) + Mala (Ma-la)(to 1732) (b. 1673 - d. 1735) + Mailu (Mai-lu) (from 1728)1727 - 1728 Chalanga-Military commandant (b. c.1690 - d. 1747) (Ch'a-lang'a)(= Jalangga) 1729 - 1732 Bao Jinzhong (Pao Chin-chung) (d. 1732) (acting) 1733 - 1734 Qingbu(Ch'ing-p'u) + Miaoshou (Miao-shou)1734 A'erxun(A-erh-hsün) (d. 1734)1734 - 1737 Nasutai (Na-su-t'ai)1737 - 1738 Hangyilu(Hang-i-lu)1738 - 1741 Jishan (Chi-shan) (1st time)1741 - 1744 Suobai (So-pai) (1st time)(acting)(b. 1695 - d. 17..)1744 - 1748 Fuqing (or Fujing)(Fu-ch'ing) (d. 1750) (1st time) 1747 - 1748 Suobai (2nd time) (s.a.)1748 - 1749 Labudun (La-pu-tun)(1st time) (b. 1703 - d. 1750)1749 - 1750 Jishan (2nd time)1749 - 1750 Fuqing (2nd time) (s.a.)1750 Labudun (2nd time) (s.a.) 1750 Jishan (3rd time) 1750 - 1751 Bandi (Pan-ti) (1st time) (d. 1755)1751 Ts'ebin -Commissioner1751 - 1753 Bandi (2nd time) (s.a.) + rNamrgyal (Namuzhale)(to 1752)1753 - 1754 Zhaohui (Chao-hui)(= Jaohūi) (b. 1708 - d. 1764)1754 - 1757 Salashan (Sa-la-shan) 1757 - 1761 Guanbao (Kuan-pao)(1st time) (b. 1695 - d. 1776) (= Guwamboo)1761 - 1764 Funai (Fu-nai) + Fujing (Fu-ching)1764 - 1766 Aminertu (or Amiletu)(A-min-erh-t'u)1765 - 1768 Machang (Ma-chang)(= Macang) (d. 1769) 1766 - 1767 Guanbao (2nd time) (s.a.)1767 - 1773 Manggulai (Mang-ku-lai)1773 - 1775 Wumitai (Wu-mi-t'ai)(= Umitai) (b. 1713 - d. 1786)1775 - 1779 Liu Baozhu (Liu Pao-chu)(1st time)1776 - 1781 Hengrui (Heng-jui) (b. 1744 - d. 1801) 1779 - 1780 Suolin (So-lin) (d. 1780)1780 - 1783 Bao-tai (Pao-t'ai) (1st time) 1780 - 1785 Boqing'e (or Boqing)(Pao-ch'ing) (b. 1721 - d. 1785) 1785 - 1786 Liu Baozhu (2nd time)1786 - 1788 Qingli (Ch'ing-li)1788 - 1789 Fozhi(Fo-chih)1788 - 1790 Shulian(Shu-lien) + Bazhong (Pa-chung)(to 1789) 1790 Pu-fu (P'u-fu) (d. 1805?)1790 - 1791 Bao-tai (Pao-t'ai) (2nd time)1791 - 1792 Ehui (O-hui)(= Ohūi) (d. 1798)1792 Eledengbao (O-le-teng-pao) (b. 1748 - d. 1805)1792 - 1794 Chengde (Ch'eng-te) (b. 1728 - d. 1804) + Helin (or Heliyen)(Ho-lin) (b. 1753 - d. 1796) 1793 - 1800 Heying (Ho-ying) (b. 1741 - d. 1821) 14 Aug 1794 - 25 Feb 1799 Songyun (Sung-yün) (b. 1752 - d. 1835) 25 Feb 1799 - 22 Dec 1803 Yingshan (Ying-shan)22 Dec 1803 - 20 Nov 1804 Funing (Fu-ning) (b. 1739 - d. 1814) 1804 - 3 Dec 1805 Cebake (Ts'e-pa-k'o) (d. 1812) 3 Dec 1805 - 30 Nov 1808 Yuning (Y'u-ning) (d. 1814?)1808 - 1810 Wenbi(Wen-pi)17 Nov 1810 - 1812 Yangchun (Yang-ch'un) (acting to15 Dec 1811)1812 - 12 Mar 1814 Hutuli (Hu-t'u-li)(= Hūturi) (d. 1814) 12 Mar 1814 - 2 Jul 1817 Xi-ming(Hsi-ming) (d. 1818) 2 Jul 1817 - 10 Nov 1820 Yulin (Yü-lin) (= Ioilin) (b. 1766 - d. 1833) 10 Nov 1820 - 7 Jul 1823 Wen Ning(Wen Ning)(= Wenning) (b. 1765 - d. 1823)1823 - 1827 Songting (Sung-t'ing)1827 - 1830 Huixian (Hui-hsien) (b. 1768 - d. 1841)1830 - 1833 Xingke (Hsing-k'o) 1833 - 1834 Longwen (Lung-wen) (d. 1841)1834 - 1836 Wenwei (Wen-wei) (d. 1855)1836 Qinglu(Ch'ing-lu) (b. 1819 - d. 1861)1836 - 1839 Guanshengbao (Kuan-sheng-pao) (d. 1845)1839 - 1842 Mengbao(Meng-pao)(1st time)1842 - 1843 Haipu(Hai-p'u)1843 Mengbao (2nd time) 1843 - 1847 (Borzigit) Qishan (Ch'i-shan) (b. 1786 - d. 1854)1847 - 1848 Binliang(Pin-liang) (d. 1848)1848 - 1852 Muteng'e (Mu-t'eng'e) (d. 1852)1852 Haimei (Ha-mei) (d. 1852) (did not take office) 1852 – 1853 Baoqing (Pao-ch'ing) (d. 1853)1853 - 1855 Zhunling (Chun-ling)1855 - 1857 Hetehe (Ho-t'e-ho) (b. 1805 - d. 1857) 1857 - 1861 Manqing(Man-ch'ing) 1861 - 1869 Jingwen (Ching-wen)1869 - 1872 Enlin (En-lin) (d. 1876)1872 - 1874 Chengji (Ch'eng-chi)1874 - 1879 Songyan (Sung-yen) (b. 1833 - d. 1907) 1879 - 1885 Seleng'e (Se-leng-o)(= Selengge) (d. 1889)1885 - 1888 Wenshuo (Wen-shuo) (b. 1837 - d. ....)1888 - 1890 Changgeng(Ch'ang-keng)1890 - 24 Sep 1892 Shengtai(Sheng-t'ai) (b. 1838 - d. 1892) 1892 - 1897 Kuihan(K'uei-han) 23 Mar 1896 - 1900 Wenhai (Wen-hai) (b. 1832? - d. 1900) 28 Oct 1900 - 1902 Yugang (Yü-kang) 2 Dec 1902 - 5 Dec 1906 Youtai (Yu-t'ai) (b. 1846 - d. 1910) 5 Dec 1906 - 6 Mar 1908 Wang Lianyu (Wang Lien-yü) (b. 1858 - d. 1915?) (1st time) 6 Mar 1908 - 20 Apr 1911 Zhao Erfeng (Chao Erh-feng) (b. 1845 - d. 1911) 20 Apr 1911 - Jun 1912 Wang Lianyu (Wang Lien-yü) (s.a.) (2nd time)Chinese Special Envoys to Tibet 9 May 1912 - 6 Jan 1913 Zhong Ying (Chung Ying) (b. 1887 - d. 1915) (left Lhasa as 12 Dec 1912) 2 Apr 1913 - 16 May 1924 Lu Xingqi (Lu Hsing-ch'i) (acting to 2 Apr 1914; nominally to 1930) (in Calcutta, India) 2 Mar 1916 - 16 May 1924 Li Jiazhe (Li Chia-che) (acting for Lu)Directors of the Tibetan Affairs Commission in LhasaNov 1934 - Jan 1935 Liu Puchen (Liu Pa-ch'en) (b. 1882 - d. 1935) KMT Jan 1935 - Jan 1938 Jiang Zhiyu (Chiang Chi-yu) (b. 1894 - d. 1962) KMT May 1938 Gao Changzhu (Kao Ch'ang-chu) (b. 1902 - d. 1979) (acting)Aug 1938 - Mar 1940 Zhang Weibai (Chang Wei-pai) (b. 1897 - d. 19..) (acting) 1 Apr 1940 - 8 Oct 1943 Kong Qingzong (K'ung Ch'ing-tsung) (b. 1895 - d. 1981) KMT 8 Oct 1943 - Jan 1946 Shen Zonglian (Shen Tsung-lien) (b. 1898 - d. 1978) KMT Jan 1946 - 20 Jul 1949 Chen Xizhang (Ch'en Hsi-chang) (b. 1919) KMTBritish Trade Agents in Gyantse(subordinated to the British Residents inSikkim) 1 Oct 1904 - 23 Dec 1905 William Frederick Travers O'Connor (b. 1870 - d. 1943) (1st time)23 Dec 1905 - 15 Dec 1906 Frederick Marshman Bailey (b. 1882 - d. 1967) (1st time) (acting)15 Dec 1906 - 18 Jul 1907 William Frederick Travers O'Connor (s.a.) (2nd time)18 Jul 1907 - 27 Jul 1907 Frederick Marshman Bailey (s.a.) (2nd time)(acting)27 Jul 1907 - 1 Aug 1907 William Frederick Travers O'Connor (s.a.) (3rd time) 1 Aug 1907 - 5 Jun 1909 Frederick Marshman Bailey (s.a.) (3rd time) 5 Jun 1909 - 13 Dec 1909 Robert Siggins Kennedy (acting) (b. 1882 - d. 1962)13 Dec 1909 - 23 Jan 1911 James Leslie Rose Weir (1st time) (b. 1883 - d. 1950)23 Jan 1911 - 1 Apr 1911 David Macdonald (1st time)(acting) (b. 1870 - d. 1962) 1 Apr 1911 - 10 Aug 1911 James Leslie Rose Weir (2nd time) (s.a.) 10 Aug 1911 - 30 Dec 1911 David Macdonald (2nd time)(acting) (s.a.)30 Dec 1911 - 15 Feb 1912 James Leslie Rose Weir (3rd time) (s.a.)15 Feb 1912 - 4 May 1912 David Macdonald (3rd time)(acting) (s.a.) 4 May 1912 - 31 Mar 1913 Basil John Gould (b. 1883 - d. 1956)31 Mar 1913 - 24 Feb 1916 David Macdonald (4th time)(acting) (s.a.)24 Feb 1916 - 31 Mar 1918 William Lachlan Campbell (b. 1880 - d. 1937)31 Mar 1918 - 20 Jun 1924 David Macdonald (5th time) (s.a.)20 Jun 1924 - 31 May 1926 Frederick Williamson (b. 1891 - d. 1935)31 May 1926 - 3 Jan 1927 RobertLancelot Vance (acting) (b. 1890 - d. 1961) 3 Jan 1927 - 30 Apr 1928 Arthur John Hopkinson (b. 1894 - d. 1953)30 Apr 1928 - 1 Mar 1929 Herbert Gordon Rivett-Carnac (b. 1892 - d. 1962) (1st time) 1 Mar 1929 - 18 May 1929 William James Leslie Neal (acting) (b. 1903 - d. 1966) 18 May 1929 - 18 Sep 1929 Herbert Gordon Rivett-Carnac (s.a.) (2nd time)18 Sep 1929 - 19 Nov 1929 Daniel Richard Smith (b. 1897 - d. 19..)19 Nov 1929 - 19 Nov 1931 Edward Walter Fletcher (b. 1899 - d. 1958)19 Nov 1931 - 18 Apr 1933 Alexander Alfred Russell (b. 1898 - d. 1967)18 Apr 1933 - 1 Dec 1933 Meredith Worth (b. 1905 - d. 1993) 1 Dec 1933 - 20 Jun 1935 Philip Coates Hailey (b. 1903 - d. 1980)20 Jun 1935 - 20 Jul 1936 Richmond Keith Molesworth Battye (b. 1905 - d. 1958)20 Jul 1936 - Feb 1937 Hugh Edward Richardson (b. 1905 - d. 2000)Heads ofBritishMission in LhasaFeb 1937 - Jul 1937 Hugh Edward Richardson (1st time) (s.a.) Jul 1937 - Oct 1938 Norbu Dhondup (1st time) (b. 1884 - d. 1944)Oct 1938 - Oct 1939 Hugh Edward Richardson (2nd time) (s.a.)Oct 1939 - Apr 1942 Norbu Dhondup (2nd time) (s.a.) Apr 1942 - Apr 1943 Frank Ludlow (b. 1885 - d. 1972) Apr 1943 - Jun 1944 George Sheriff (1st time) (b. 1898 - d. 1967)Jun 1944 - Sep 1944 Hugh Edward Richardson (3rd time) (s.a.)Sep 1944 - Apr 1945 George Sheriff (2nd time) (s.a.)Apr 1945 - Apr 1946 Pemba Tsering (1st time) (b. 1905 - d. 1954) Apr 1946 - 14 Aug 1947 Hugh Edward Richardson (4th time) (s.a.) Chiefs of the Mission of India to Lhasa15 Aug 1947 - Sep 1947 Hugh Edward Richardson (1st time) (s.a.) Sep 1947 - Dec 1947 Pemba Tsering (s.a.) Dec 1947 - Aug 1950 Hugh Edward Richardson (2nd time) (s.a.) Aug 1950 Surendra Mohan Krishnatry (b. 1921)Aug 1950 - Sep 1952 Sumal Sinha (b. 1920 - d. 1983)
Representative of the Central People's Government in Tibet (andNov 1958 - Aug 1965, First Political Commissar of the Tibet Military Region of the Chinese People's Liberation Army) Jul 1951 - 1964 Zhang Jingwu (Chang Ching-wu) (b. 1906 - d. 1971)

Tibetan Government in Exile

[Tibetan flag]

28 Apr 1959 Central Tibetan Administration (from 1 May 1960, in Dharamshala, India exile) formed. 10 Mar 1963 Draft democratic constitution for future Tibet promulgated by the Dalai Lama. 14 Jun 1991 Charter of the Tibetans in Exile adopted.

Dalai Lama25 Aug 1939 - rJe-btsun-'Jam-dpal-ngag-dbang- (s.a.) blo-bzang-ye-shes-bstan-'dzin- rgya-mtsho (14th Dalai Lama) (from 31 Mar 1959 in exile [from 1 May 1960 in Dharamshala, India];political role ended 31 May 2011)

Chairmen of the Cabinet(Kalön Tripa; from 26 Sep 2012, Sikyong)(in exile)1959 - 1960 Jangsa Tsang Non-party1960 - 1965 Surkhang Wangchen Gelek (b. 1910 - d. 1977) Non-party1965 - 1970 Shenkha Gyurme Sonam Topgyal (b. 1896 - d. 19..) Non-party ('gyur-med-bsod-nams-stobs-rgyal)1970 - 1975 Garang Lobsang Rigzin (b. 1905 - d. 19..) Non-party (dga'-brang-blo-bzang-rig-'dzin)1975 - Mar 1980 Kundeling Woeser Gyaltsen (b. 1915 - d. 2001) Non-party (kun-bde-gling-'od-zer-rgyal-mtshan)Mar 1980 - 1985 Wangdue Dorjee (b. 1914 - d. 1994) Non-party1985 - May 1990 Juchen Thupten Namgyal (b. 1929 - d. 2011) Non-partyMay 1990 - Aug 1991 Kelsang Yeshi (1st time) (b. 1941) Non-partyAug 1991 - Feb 1993 Gyalo Thondup (b. 1928 - d. 2025) Non-partyFeb 1993 - 4 Jun 1996 Tenzin Namgyal Tethong (b. 1947) Non-party 4 Jun 1996 - Apr 1997 Kelsang Yeshi (2nd time) (s.a.) Non-partyApr 1997 - 5 Sep 2001 Sonam Topgyal (b. 1941 - d. 2012) Non-party 5 Sep 2001 - 8 Aug 2011 Samdhong Rinpoche (=Lobsang Tenzin)(b. 1939) Non-party 8 Aug 2011 - 27 May 2021 Lobsang Sangay (b. 1968) Non-party 27 May 2021 - Penpa Tsering (b. 1967) Non-party

Note: No political parties existed prior to the 7 Oct 1950 Chinese invasion.

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