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| Regions with significant populations | |
|---|---|
| United States,Northern States,New England | |
| Languages | |
| English | |
| Religion | |
| Majority: Christianity (Protestantism)[1] |
The termYankee and its contracted formYank have several interrelated meanings, all referring to people from the United States. Their various meanings depend on the context, and may refer toNew Englanders, theNortheastern United States, theNorthern United States, or to people from the US in general. Many of the earlier immigrants to the northeast from Ireland, Italy, Poland, and other regions of Europe, usedYankees to refer toNew EnglandEnglish settlers.[2][3][4]
Outside the United States,Yank is used informally to refer to a person or thing from the US. It has been especially popular in the United Kingdom, Ireland, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand where it may be used variously, either with an uncomplimentary overtone, endearingly, or cordially.[5][6] In theSouthern United States,Yankee is a derisive term which refers to all Northerners, and during theAmerican Civil War it was applied byConfederates to soldiers of theUnion army in general. Elsewhere in the United States, it largely refers to people from the Northeast or withNew England cultural ties, such as descendants ofcolonial New England settlers, wherever they live.[7] Its sense is sometimes more cultural than geographical, emphasizing theCalvinistPuritan Christian beliefs and traditions of the Congregationalists who brought their culture when they settled outside New England. The speech dialect ofEastern New England English is called "Yankee" or "Yankee dialect".[8]
Most linguists look toDutch language sources, noting the extensive interaction between the Dutch colonists inNew Netherland (parts of New York, New Jersey, and Delaware) and the English colonists inNew England (Massachusetts,Rhode Island, andConnecticut).[9] The exact application, however, is uncertain; some scholars suggest that it was a term used in derision of the Dutch colonists, others that it was derisive of the English colonists.
Michael Quinion andPatrick Hanks argue that the term comes from the DutchJanneke, a diminutive form of the given nameJan[10] which would be Anglicized by New Englanders as "Yankee" due to the Dutch pronunciation ofJ being the same as the EnglishY. Quinion and Hanks posit that it was "used as a nickname for a Dutch-speaking American in colonial times" and could have grown to include non-Dutch colonists, as well.[10] TheOxford English Dictionary calls this theory "perhaps the most plausible".
Alternatively, the Dutch given namesJan (Dutch:[jɑn]) andKees (Dutch:[keːs]) have long been common, and the two are sometimes combined into a single name (Jan Kees). Its Anglicized spellingYankee could, in this way, have been used to mock Dutch colonists. The chosen nameJan Kees may have been partly inspired by a dialectal rendition ofJan Kaas ("John Cheese"), the generic nickname that Southern Dutch used for Dutch people living in the North.[11]
TheOnline Etymology Dictionary gives its origin as around 1683, attributing it to English colonists insultingly referring to Dutch colonists. English privateerWilliam Dampier relateshis dealings in 1681 with Dutch privateer Captain Yanky or Yanke. LinguistJan de Vries notes that there was mention of a pirate namedDutch Yanky in the 17th century.[12]The Life and Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves (1760) contains the passage, "Haul forward thy chair again, take thy berth, and proceed with thy story in a direct course, without yawing like a Dutch yanky."[13] According to this theory, Dutch settlers ofNew Amsterdam started using the term against the English colonists of neighboring Connecticut.[11]
British GeneralJames Wolfe made the earliest recorded use of the word "Yankee" in 1758 when he referred to the New England soldiers under his command. "I can afford you two companies of Yankees, and the more, because they are better for ranging and scouting than either work or vigilance".[14] Later British use of the word was in a derogatory manner, as seen in a cartoon published in 1775 ridiculing "Yankee" soldiers.[14] New Englanders themselves employed the word in a neutral sense; the "Pennamite–Yankee War", for example, was a series of clashes in 1769 over land titles in Pennsylvania between settlers fromConnecticut Colony and "Pennamite" settlers fromPennsylvania.
The meaning ofYankee has varied over time. In the 18th century, it referred to residents of New England descended from the original English settlers of the region.Mark Twain used the word in this sense the following century in his 1889 novelA Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. As early as the 1770s, British people applied the term to any person from the United States. In the 19th century, Americans in the southern United States employed the word in reference to Americans from the northern United States, though not to recent immigrants from Europe. Thus, a visitor toRichmond, Virginia, commented in 1818, "The enterprising people are mostly strangers; Scots, Irish, and especially New England men, or Yankees, as they are called".[15]
Historically, it has also been used to distinguish American-born Protestants from later immigrants, such as Catholics of Irish descent.[16][17]
Many etymologies have been suggested for the wordYankee, but modern linguists generally reject theories that suggest it originated in any Indigenous languages.[9] This includes a theory put forth by a British officer in 1789, who said that it was derived from theCherokee wordeankke meaning "coward"—despite the fact that no such word existed in the Cherokee language.[9] Another theory surmised that the word was borrowed from theWyandot[18] pronunciation of the Frenchl'anglais, meaning "the Englishman" or "the English language", which was sounded asY'an-gee.[9][19]
American musicologistOscar Sonneck debunked a romanticized false etymology in his 1909 workReport on "The Star-Spangled Banner", "Hail Columbia", "America", "Yankee Doodle". He cited a popular theory that claimed the word came from a tribe who called themselvesYankoos, said to mean "invincible". The story claimed that New Englanders had defeated this tribe after a bloody battle, and the remainingYankoo Indians transferred their name to the victors—who were "agreeable to the Indian custom". Sonneck notes that multiple American writers since 1775 had repeated this story as if it were fact, despite what he perceived to be holes in it. It had never been the tradition of any Indian tribe to transfer their name to other peoples, according to Sonneck, nor had any settlers ever adopted an Indian name to describe themselves.[20] Sonneck concludes by pointing out that there was never a tribe called theYankoos.[21]
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The original Yankees diffused widely across the northern United States, leaving their imprints in New York, theUpper Midwest, many taking advantage of water routes by theGreat Lakes, and places as far away asSeattle,San Francisco, andHonolulu.[22]
Yankeeism is the general character of the Union. Yankee manners are as migratory as Yankee men. The latter are found everywhere and the former prevail wherever the latter are found. Although the genuine Yankee belongs to New England, the term "Yankee" is now as appropriate to the natives of the Union at large.[23]
Yankees settled other states in various ways: some joined highly organized colonization companies, others purchased groups of land together; some joined volunteer land settlement groups, and self-reliant individual families also migrated.[23] Yankees typically lived in villages consisting of clusters of separate farms. Often they were merchants, bankers, teachers, or professionals.[24][25]
Village life fostered local democracy, best exemplified by the opentown meeting form of government that still exists today in New England. Village life also stimulated mutual oversight of moral behavior and emphasized civic virtue. The Yankees built international trade routes stretching to China by 1800 from the New England seaports ofBoston,Salem,Providence,Newport, andNew London, among others. Much of the profit from trading was reinvested in the textile and machine tools industries.[26]
After 1800, Yankees spearheaded most American reform movements, including those for the abolition of slavery, temperance in use of alcohol, increase in women's political rights, and improvement in women's education.Emma Willard andMary Lyon pioneered in the higher education of women, while Yankees comprised most of the reformers who went South duringReconstruction in the late 1860s to educate theFreedmen.[27]
Historian John Buenker has examined the worldview of the Yankee settlers in the Midwest:
Because they arrived first and had a strong sense of community and mission, Yankees were able to transplant New England institutions, values, and mores, altered only by the conditions of frontier life. They established a public culture that emphasized the work ethic, the sanctity of private property, individual responsibility, faith in residential and social mobility, practicality, piety, public order and decorum, reverence for public education, activists, honest, and frugal government, town meeting democracy, and he believed that there was a public interest that transcends particular and stock ambitions. Regarding themselves as the elect and just in a world rife with sin and corruption, they felt a strong moral obligation to define and enforce standards of community and personal behavior…. This pietistic worldview was substantially shared by British, Scandinavian, Swiss, English-Canadian and Dutch Reformed immigrants, as well as by German Protestants and many of theForty-Eighters.[28]
Yankees dominated New England, much of upstate New York, and much of the upper Midwest, and were the strongest supporters of the new Republican party in the 1860s. This was especially true for theCongregationalists,Presbyterians, and Methodists among them. A study of 65 predominantly Yankee counties showed that they voted only 40 percent for theWhigs in 1848 and 1852, but became 61–65 percentRepublican in presidential elections of 1856 through 1864.[29]
Ivy League universities remained bastions of old Yankee culture until well afterWorld War II, particularlyHarvard andYale.
PresidentCalvin Coolidge exemplified the modern Yankee stereotype. Coolidge moved from ruralVermont to urbanMassachusetts and was educated at eliteAmherst College. Yet his flint-faced, unprepossessing ways and terse rural speech proved politically attractive. "That Yankee twang will be worth a hundred thousand votes", explained one Republican leader.[30] Coolidge's laconic ways and dry humor were characteristic of stereotypical rural "Yankee humor" at the turn of the 20th century.[31]
Yankee ingenuity was a worldwide stereotype of inventiveness, technical solutions to practical problems, "know-how," self-reliance, and individual enterprise.[32] The stereotype first appeared in the 19th century. As Mitchell Wilson notes, "Yankee ingenuity and Yankee git-up-and-go did not exist in colonial days."[33] The great majority of Yankees gravitated toward the burgeoning cities of the northeast, while wealthy New Englanders also sent ambassadors to frontier communities where they became influential bankers and newspaper printers. They introduced the term "Universal Yankee Nation" to proselytize their hopes for national and global influence.[34]
New England Yankees originally followed thePuritan tradition, as expressed inCongregational andBaptist churches. Beginning in the late colonial period, many becamePresbyterians,Episcopalians,Methodists, or, later,Unitarians. Strait-laced 17th-century moralism as derided by novelistNathaniel Hawthorne faded in the 18th century. TheFirst Great Awakening underJonathan Edwards and others in the mid-18th century, and theSecond Great Awakening in the early 19th century underCharles Grandison Finney and others emphasized personal piety, revivals, and devotion to civic duty.
A pervasive influence on the use of the term throughout the years has been thesong "Yankee Doodle" which was popular during theAmerican Revolutionary War (1775–1783). The song originated among the British troops during the French and Indian or Seven Years' War, creating a stereotype of the Yankee simpleton who stuck a feather in his cap and thought that he was stylish,[35] but it was rapidly re-appropriated by American patriots after thebattles of Lexington and Concord. Today, "Yankee Doodle" is the officialstate song of Connecticut.[36]
An early use of the term outside the United States was in the creation ofSam Slick the "Yankee Clockmaker" in a newspaper column inHalifax,Nova Scotia, in 1835. The character was a plain-speaking American who becomes an example for Nova Scotians to follow in his industry and practicality; his uncouth manners and vanity were qualities that his creator detested. The character was developed byThomas Chandler Haliburton, and it grew between 1836 and 1844 in a series of publications.[37]
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Thedamned Yankee usage dates from 1812.[14] Confederates popularized it as a derogatory term for their Northern enemies during and after theAmerican Civil War (1861–1865). Rhode Island GovernorBruce Sundlun had been a pilot in World War II, and he named hisB-17F bomberDamn Yankee because a crewman from North Carolina nicknamed him with that epithet.[38][39]
The termYankee can have many different meanings within the United States that are contextually and geographically dependent. Traditionally,Yankee was most often used to refer to a New Englander descended from the settlers of the region, thus often suggesting Puritanism and thrifty values.[40] By the mid-20th century, some speakers applied the word to any American inhabiting the area north of theMason–Dixon Line, though usually with a specific focus still on New England.New England Yankee might be used to differentiate.[41] However, within New England itself, the term still refers more specifically to old-stock New Englanders of English descent. For example:
Certainly the Irish have for years complained of Yankee discrimination against them.
— William F. Whyte[42]
There were no civil rights groups then. Even the Federal Government was controlled by bigoted Yankees and Irish who banded together against the Italian immigrant.
— Fred Langone[43]
The one anomaly of this era was the election of Yankee Republican Leverett Saltonstall as governor in 1938, and even then Saltonstall jokingly attributed his high vote totals in Irish districts to his 'South Boston face'.
— Stephen Puleo[44]
In the Southern United States, the term is used in derisive reference to any Northerner, especially one who has migrated to the South and maintains derisive attitudes towards Southerners and the Southern way of life. Alabama lawyer and author Daniel Robinson Hundley describes the Yankee as such inSocial Relations in Our Southern States:
Yankee with all these is looked upon usually as a term of reproach—signifying a shrewd, sharp, chaffering, oily-tongued, soft-sawdering, inquisitive, money-making, money-saving, and money-worshipping individual, who hails from Down East, and who is presumed to have no where else on the Globe a permanent local habitation, however ubiquitous he may be in his travels and pursuits.[45]
SenatorJ. William Fulbright of Arkansas pointed out as late as 1966, "The very word 'Yankee' still wakens in Southern minds historical memories of defeat and humiliation, of theburning of Atlanta andSherman's March to the Sea, or of an ancestral farmhouse burned byQuantrill's Raiders".[46]Ambrose Bierce defines the term inThe Devil's Dictionary as: "In Europe, an American. In the Northern States of our Union, a New Englander. In the Southern States the word is unknown. (See DAMNYANK.)"
E. B. White humorously draws his own distinctions:
To foreigners, a Yankee is an American.
To Americans, a Yankee is a Northerner.
To Northerners, a Yankee is an Easterner.
To Easterners, a Yankee is a New Englander.
To New Englanders, a Yankee is a Vermonter.
And in Vermont, a Yankee is somebody who eats pie for breakfast.[47]
Major League Baseball'sNew York Yankees acquired the name from journalists after the team was enfranchised in1903, though they were officially known as the Highlanders until1913. The regionalYankees–Red Sox rivalry can make the utterance of the term "Yankee" unwelcome to some fans in New England, especially to the most dedicated Red Sox fans living in the northeastern United States.[48]
The termSwamp Yankee is sometimes used in rural Rhode Island, Connecticut, and southeastern Massachusetts to refer to Protestant farmers of moderate means and their descendants, although it is often regarded as a derogatory term.[7] Scholars note that the famous Yankee "twang" survives mainly in the hill towns of interior New England, though it is disappearing even there.[49]
Mark Twain's 1889 novelA Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court popularized the word as a nickname for residents of Connecticut, and Connecticut Air National Guard unit103d Airlift Wing is nicknamed "The Flying Yankees."
The shortened formYank is used as a derogatory, pejorative, playful, or colloquial term for Americans in Britain,[50] Australia,[51] Canada,[52] South Africa,[53] Ireland,[54] and New Zealand.[55] The fullYankee may be considered mildly derogatory, depending on the country.[56] The Spanish variationyanqui is used in Latin American Spanish,[57] often derogatorily.[58] Venezuelan Spanish has the wordpitiyanqui derived around 1940 frompetit yankee orpetit yanqui,[59] a derogatory term for those who profess an exaggerated and often ridiculous admiration for anything from the United States.
In the Australia, the termseppo, shortened from traditionalrhyming slangyank ==>septic tank, is sometimes used as a pejorative reference to Americans.[60]
In Finland, the wordjenkki is sometimes used to refer to any American citizen, andJenkkilä orJenkit refers to the United States itself. It is not considered offensive or anti-American, but rather a colloquial expression. In Sweden, the wordjänkare is a derivative of Yankee that is used to refer to both American citizens and classic American cars from the 1950s that are popular in rural Sweden.[61]
In the late 19th century, the Japanese were called "the Yankees of the East" in praise of their industriousness and drive to modernization.[62] In Japan, the termyankī (ヤンキー) has been used since the late 1970s to refer to a type of delinquent youth associated with motorcycle gangs and frequently sporting dyed blond hair.[63][64][65]
Around theAmerican occupation of Korea and theKorean War periods, Korean black markets that sold smuggled American goods from military bases were called "yankee markets" (Korean: 양키시장).[66] The term "yankee" is now generally viewed as ananti-American slur in South Korea,[67] and is often used in the exclamation "Yankee go home!" (『양키 고 홈!』).[68]
One of the drawing office staff relates how they spent months reading "Yankee magazines and extracting all the articles on Budd Rail Diesel Cars".
Linguistic
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