Great Satraps      Mahakṣatrapa | |||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 35–415 CE | |||||||||||||||||||||
Approximate territory of the Western Satraps (35–415) circa 350 CE.[1] | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Capital | Ujjain Barygaza Minnagara | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Common languages | Pali (Kharoshthi script) Sanskrit,Prakrit (Brahmi script) | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Religion | Hinduism Buddhism | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Satrap | |||||||||||||||||||||
• c. 35 | Abhiraka | ||||||||||||||||||||
• 388–415 | Rudrasimha III | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Antiquity | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Established | 35 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 415 CE | ||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||
| Today part of | India Pakistan | ||||||||||||||||||||
TheWestern Satraps, orWestern Kshatrapas (Brahmi:,Mahakṣatrapa, "GreatSatraps") wereIndo-Scythian (Saka) rulers of the western and central parts of India (extending fromSaurashtra in the south andMalwa in the east, covering modern-daySindh,Gujarat,Maharashtra,Rajasthan andMadhya Pradesh states), between 35 and 415 CE. The Western Satraps were contemporaneous with theKushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and were possibly vassals of the Kushans. They were also contemporaneous with theSatavahana who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western Satraps" in modern historiography in order to differentiate them from the "Northern Satraps", who ruled inPunjab andMathura until the 2nd century CE.
The power of the Western Satraps started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Saka rulers were defeated by the EmperorGautamiputra Satakarni of theSatavahana dynasty.[2] After this, the Saka kingdom revived, but wasultimately defeated byChandragupta II of theGupta Empire in the 4th century CE.[3]
They are named Western Satraps in contrast to the "Northern Satraps" who ruled aroundEast Punjab and the area ofMathura, such asRajuvula, and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara.[5]
Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps",Ptolemy in his 2nd century "Geographia" still called them "Indo-Scythians".[6] The wordKṣatrapa has the same origin as the wordsatrap and are both descended fromMedianxšaθrapāvan-, which means viceroy or governor of a province, and according to John Marshall, the wordkṣatrapa means the viceroy of the "King of kings". The title of theMahakṣatrapa or the "Great Satrap" was given to the ruling Satrap, and the title ofkṣatrapa was given to the heir apparent. The western Kshatrapas were also known as Sakas to Indians.[7]
The titleKṣaharāta by which the Western Satraps styled themselves is a derivation of aSaka language term*xšaθrapati, meaning "lord of the country", and was likely the Saka synonym for the Indian titleKṣatrapa, which had itself been borrowed from the IranianMedian language.[8]
The Sakas of Western India spoke the Saka language, also known asKhotanese as it is first attested in theTarim Basin.[9]
The Western Satraps are thought to have started with the rather short-livedKshaharata dynasty (also calledChaharada,Khaharata orKhakharata depending on sources).[10] The termKshaharata is also known from the 6 CETaxila copper plate inscription, in which it qualifies the Indo-Scythian rulerLiaka Kusulaka. TheNasik inscription of the 19th year ofSri Pulamavi also mentions theKhakharatavasa, orKshaharata race.[11]
The earliest Kshaharata for whom there is evidence isAbhiraka, whose rare coins are known. He was succeeded byBhumaka, father ofNahapana, who only used on his coins the title of Satrap, and not that ofRaja orRaño (king). Nahapana's rule is variously dated to 24-70 CE, 66-71 CE, or 119–124 CE, according to one of his coins, which bearBuddhist symbols, such as the eight-spoked wheel (dharmachakra), or the lion seated on a capital, a representation of a pillar ofAshoka.
Nahapana succeeded him, and became a very powerful ruler. He occupied portions of theSatavahana Empire in western and central India. Nahapana held sway overMalwa, SouthernGujarat, and NorthernKonkan, fromBharuch toSopara and theNasik andPoona districts.[17] At that time, the area northwest of the Western Satraps inBaluchistan was ruled by theParatarajas, anIndo-Parthian polity, while theKushans were expanding their empire in the North.[18]
His son-in-law, the SakaUshavadata (married to his daughter Dakshamitra), is known from inscriptions inNasik andKarle andJunnar (Manmodi Caves, inscription of the year 46) to have been viceroy of Nahapana, ruling over the southern part of his territory.[19][15]
Nahapana established the silver coinage of the Kshatrapas.
Circa 120 CE, the Western Satraps are known to have allied with theUttamabhadras in order to repulse an attack by theMalavas, whom they finally crushed.[20] The claim appears in an inscription at theNashik Caves, made by theNahapana's viceroyUshavadata:
...And by order of the lord I went to release the chief of the Uttamabhadras, who had been besieged for the rainy season by the Malayas, and those Malayas fled at the mere roar (of my approaching) as it were, and were all made prisoners of the Uttamabhadra warriors.
— Inscription in Cave No.10 of theNashik Caves.[21]
An important inscription related toNahapana in the Great Chaitya atKarla Caves[22] shows his support of Buddhism and Hinduism:
Success!! ByUshabadata, the son of Dinaka and the son-in-law of the king, the Kshaharata, theKshatrapaNahapana, who gave three hundred thousand cows, who made gifts of gold and atirtha on the river Banasa, who gave to the Devas andBrahmanas sixteen villages, who at the pure tirtha Prabhasa gave eight wives to the Brahmanas, and who also fed annually a hundred thousand Brahmanas- there has been given the village of Karajika for the support of the ascetics living in the caves atValuraka without any distinction of sect or origin, for all who would keep thevarsha.
— Inscription of Nahapana, Karla Caves.[23]
The Western Satraps are known for the construction and dedication of numerous Buddhist caves in Central India, particularly inMaharashtra andGujarat.[24][25] It is thought that Nahapana ruled at least 35 years in the region ofKarla,Junnar andNasik, giving him ample time for construction work there.[26]
Numerous inscriptions in the caves are known, which were made by the family of Nahapana: six inscriptions inNasik Caves, one inscription atKarla Caves, and one by Nahapana's minister in theManmodi Caves atJunnar.[27][28] At the same time, "Yavanas", Greeks orIndo-Greeks, also left donative inscriptions at the Nasik Caves, Karla Caves,Lenyadri andManmodi Caves.[29]
In particular, thechaitya cave complex of the Karla Caves, the largest inSouth Asia, was constructed and dedicated in 120 CE by the Western Satraps ruler Nahapana.[24][30][31]
![Hall of the Great Chaitya Cave at Karla (120 CE)[24]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKarla_Amit_R_Mahadik_01.jpg)
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![Donative inscription by a Yavana ("Indo-Greek") named Vitasamghata.[32]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKarla_Amit_R_Mahadik_02.jpg)
Parts of the Nasik Caves, also called Pandavleni Caves, were also carved during the time of Nahapana.[25]
The inscriptions of cave no.10 in the Nasik Caves nearNasik, reveal that in 105-106 CE, Kshatrapas defeated the Satavahanas after which KshatrapaNahapana’s son-in-law and Dinika's son-Ushavadata donated 3000 gold coins for this cave as well as for the food and clothing of the monks. Usabhdatta's wife (Nahapana's daughter), Dakshmitra also donated one cave for the Buddhist monks. Cave 10 - 'Nahapana Vihara' is spacious with 16 rooms.
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Two inscriptions in Cave 10 mention the building and the gift of the whole cave to theSamgha byUshavadata, theSaka[33] son-in-law and viceroy of Nahapana:
Success!Ushavadata, son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, (...) inspired by (true) religion, in the Trirasmi hills atGovardhana, has caused this cave to be made and these cisterns.
— Inscription No.10 of Nahapana, Cave No.10, Nasik[34]
Success! In the year 42, in the month Vesakha,Ushavadata, son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, has bestowed this cave on theSamgha generally....
— Inscription No.12 of Nahapana, Cave No.10, Nasik[35]
According to the inscriptions, Ushavadata accomplished various charities and conquests on behalf of his father-in-law. He constructed rest-houses, gardens and tanks at Bharukachchha (Broach), Dashapura (Mandasor inMalwa),Govardhana (nearNasik) and Shorparaga (Sopara in theThana district).
A dedication in theLenyadri complex of theJunnar caves (inscription No. 26 in Cave VI of the Bhimasankar group of caves), mentions a gift by Nahapana's prime minister Ayama in the "year 46":
The meritorious gift.... of Ayama of the Vachhasagotra, prime minister of the King Mahakshatrapa the lord Nahapana
— Junnar inscription No. 26, 124 CE[36]
This inscription, the last one of the reign of Nahapana, suggests that Nahapana may have become an independent ruler since he is described as a King.[36]
Nahapana is mentioned in thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea under the nameNambanus,[37] as ruler of the area aroundBarigaza:
Beyond thegulf of Baraca is that ofBarygaza and the coast of the country ofAriaca, which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus and of all India. That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia is calledAbiria, but the coast is calledSyrastrene. It is a fertile country, yieldingwheat andrice andsesame oil and clarified butter,cotton and the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in color. The metropolis of this country isMinnagara, from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza.
— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap. 41[38]
Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centers ofRoman trade with India. The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged:
There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, alsoLaodicean andArabian;copper,tin, andlead;coral andtopaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass,realgar,antimony, gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these placesspikenard,costus,bdellium,ivory,agate andcarnelian,lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds,silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town fromEgypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi.
— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 49.[39]
Goods were also brought down in quantity fromUjjain, the capital of the Western Satraps:
Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth.
— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 48.[39]
Some ships were also fitted out from Barigaza, to export goods westward across the Indian Ocean:
Ships are also customarily fitted out from the places across this sea, from Ariaca and Barygaza, bringing to these far-side market-towns the products of their own places; wheat, rice, clarified butter, sesame oil, cotton cloth (the monache and the sagmatogene), and girdles, and honey from the reed called sacchari. Some make the voyage especially to these market-towns, and others exchange their cargoes while sailing along the coast.
— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 14.[39]
An Indian statuette, thePompeii Lakshmi, was found in the ruins ofPompei and is thought to have been the result ofIndo-Roman trade relations in the 1st century CE.[40] There is a possibility that the statuette found its way to the west during the rule ofWestern SatrapNahapana in theBhokardan area, and was shipped toRome from the port ofBarigaza.[41]
Nahapana and Ushavadata were ultimately defeated by the powerful Satavahana kingGautamiputra Satakarni. Gautamiputra drove the Sakas from Malwa and Western Maharashtra, forcing Nahapana west to Gujarat. His victory is known from the fact that Gautamiputra restruck many of Nahapana's coins (such a hoard was found in Jogalthambi,Nashik District),[43]) and that he claimed victory on them in an inscription atCave No. 3 of thePandavleni Caves inNashik:
Gautamiputra Satakarni (…) who crushed down the pride and conceit of theKshatriyas; who destroyed theSakas (Western Satraps),Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) andPahlavas (Indo-Parthians),[44] who rooted out the Khakharata family (the Kshaharata family of Nahapana); who restored the glory of the Satavahana race.
It seems that the Indian colonisation of the islands ofJava andSumatra took place during the time of the Western Satraps.[45] People may have fled the sub-continent due to the conflicts there. Some foundation legends of Java describe the leader of the colonists asAji Saka, a prince fromGujarat, at the beginning of theShaka era (which is also the Java era).[45]
A new dynasty, called the Bhadramukhas orKardamaka dynasty, was established by the "Satrap"Castana. It was named after Kardhaman, son of RajaDhaj. The date of Castana is not certain, but many believe his reign started in the year 78 CE, thus making him the founder of theSaka era.[46] This is consistent with the fact that his descendants (who we know used the Saka era on their coins and inscriptions) would use the date of their founder as their era. Castana was satrap ofUjjain during that period. A statue found in Mathura together with statues of theKushan kingKanishka andVima Taktu, and bearing the name "Shastana" is often attributed to Castana himself, and suggests Castana may have been a feudatory of the Kushans. Conversely, theRabatak inscription also claims Kushan dominion over Western Satrap territory (by mentioning Kushan control over the capitalUjjain) during the reign ofKanishka (c. 127–150 CE).
Ṣa-sta-na).[47]Mathura Museum.[48]The territory of the Western Satraps at the time of Chastana is described extensively by the geographerPtolemy in his "Geographia", where he qualifies them as "Indo-Scythians". He describes this territory as starting fromPatalene in the West, toUjjain in the east ("Ozena-Regia Tiastani", "Ozene/Ujjain, capital of kingChastana"),[49] and beyondBarigaza in the south.
Moreover the region which is next to the western part of India, is called Indoscythia. A part of this region around the (Indus) river mouth isPatalena, above which isAbiria. That which is about the mouth of the Indus and the Canthicolpus bay is calledSyrastrena. (...) In the island formed by this river are the cities Pantala,Barbaria. (...) The Larica region of Indoscythia is located eastward from the swamp near the sea, in which on the west of theNamadus river is the interior city ofBarygaza emporium. On the east side of the river (...)Ozena-Regia Tiastani (...)Minnagara.
— Ptolemy,Geographia, Book Seven, Chapter I
Around 130 CE,Rudradaman I, grandson ofChastana, took the title "Mahakshatrapa" ("Great Satrap"), and defended his kingdom from theSatavahanas. The conflict between Rudradaman and Satavahanas became so gruelling, that in order to contain the conflict, a matrimonial relationship was concluded by giving Rudradaman's daughter to the Satavahana kingVashishtiputra Satakarni. The inscription relating the marriage between Rudradaman's daughter andVashishtiputra Satakarni appears in a cave atKanheri:
Of the queen ... of the illustriousSatakarni Vasishthiputra, descended from the race of Karddamaka kings, (and) daughter of the Mahakshatrapa Ru(dra)....... .........of the confidential minister Sateraka, a water-cistern, the meritorious gift.
— Kanheri inscription of Rudradaman I's daughter.[51]
The Satavahanas and the Western Satraps remained at war however, and Rudradaman I defeated the Satavahanas twice in these conflicts, only sparing the life of Vashishtiputra Satakarni due to their family alliance:
Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord ofDakshinapatha, on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him.
Rudradaman regained all the previous territories held by Nahapana, probably with the exception of the southern areas ofPoona andNasik (epigraphical remains in these two areas at that time are exclusively Satavahana):[53]
Rudradaman (...) who is the lord of the whole of eastern and western Akaravanti (Akara:East Malwa andAvanti:West Malwa), theAnupa country,Anarta,Surashtra, Svabhra (northernGujarat), Maru (Marwar), Kachchha (Cutch),Sindhu-Sauvira (Sindh andMultan districts), Kukura (EasternRajputana),Aparanta ("Western Border" – NorthernKonkan),Nishada (an aboriginal tribe,Malwa and parts ofCentral India) and other territories gained by his own valour, the towns, marts and rural parts of which are never troubled by robbers, snakes, wild beasts, diseases and the like, where all subjects are attached to him, (and) where through his might the objects of (religion), wealth and pleasure (are duly attained).
— Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman.[52] Geographical interpretations in parentheses from Rapson.[54]
Later, the Junagadh rock inscription (c. 150 CE) ofRudradaman I[55] acknowledged the military might of theYaudheyas "who would not submit because they were proud of their title 'heroes among the Kshatriyas'", before explaining that they were ultimately vanquished by Rudradaman I.[56][57]
Rudradaman (...) who by force destroyed the Yaudheyas who were loath to submit, rendered proud as they were by having manifested their title of 'heroes among all Kshatriyas'.
Recently discovered pillar inscriptions describe the presence of a Western Satrap namedRupiamma in theBhandara district of the area ofVidarbha, in the extreme northeastern area ofMaharashtra, where he erected the pillars.[58]
Rudradarman is known for his sponsoring of the arts. He is known to have written poetry in the purest of Sanskrit, and made it his court language. His name is forever attached to the inscription by Sudharshini lake.
He had at his court a Greek writer namedYavanesvara ("Lord of the Greeks"), who translated from Greek to Sanskrit theYavanajataka ("Saying of the Greeks"), an astrological treatise and India's earliest Sanskrit work in horoscopy.[59]
) of theSaka Era (corresponding to 178 CE).[60]KingJivadaman became king for the centenary of theSaka Era, in the year 100 (corresponding to 178 CE). His reign is otherwise undocumented, but he is the first Western Satrap ruler who started to print the minting date on his coins, using theBrāhmī numerals of theBrāhmī script behind the king's head.[61] This is of immense value to date precisely Western Satrap rulers, and to clarify perfectly the chronology and succession between them, as they also mention their predecessor on their coins. According to his coins, Jivadaman seems to have ruled two times, once betweenSaka Era 100 and 103 (178-181 CE), before the rule ofRudrasimha I, and once between Saka Era 119 and 120 (197-198 CE).
An inscription ofRudrasimha I (178–197) was recently found at Setkhedi inShajapur district, dated to 107Saka Era, that is 185 CE, confirming the expansion of the Western Satraps to the east at that date.[63] There is also an earlier inscription related to Saka rule inUjjain,[63] as well as a later one, theKanakerha inscription, related to Saka rule in the area ofVidisha,Sanchi andEran in the early 4th century.[63]
A memorial pillar with an inscription in the name of "Mahakshatrapa KumaraRupiamma" has been recovered inPauni in the central region ofVidharba,[64] and is dated to the 2nd century CE.[65] Although this Great Satrap is not otherwise known from coinage, this memorial pillar is thought to mark the southern extent of the conquests of the Western Satraps, much beyond the traditionally held boundary of theNarmada River.[65] The use of the word "Kumara" may also mean that Rupiamma was the son of a Great Satrap, rather than holding the title himself.[66]
The south Indian rulerYajna Sri Satakarni (170-199 CE) of theSatavahana dynasty defeated the Western Satraps in the late 2nd century CE, thereby reconquering their southern regions in western and central India, which led to the decline of the Western Satraps.[67]
Yajna Sri Satakarni left inscriptions inNasik Caves,Kanheri andGuntur, testifying to the renewed extent of Satavahana territory.[68] There are two inscriptions of Yajna Sri Satakarni atKanheri, in cave No. 81,[69] and in the Chaitya cave No. 3.[70] In theNasik Caves, there is one inscription ofSri Yajna Satakarni, in the 7th year of his reign.[71]
There is a possibility, however, that the areas ofPoona andNasik had remained in the hands of the Satavahanas since the time ofGautamiputra Satakarni after his victory overNahapana, as there are no epigraphical records of the Kardamakas in this area.[53]
The Kshatrapa dynasty seems to have reached a high level of prosperity under the rule ofRudrasena II (256–278), 19th ruler of Kshatrapa.
A marital alliance between theAndhra Ikshvaku and the Western Satraps seems to have occurred during the time of Rudrasena II, as the Andhra Ikshvaku ruler Māṭharīputra Vīrapuruṣadatta (250-275 CE) seems to have had as one of his wives Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of "the ruler ofUjjain", possibly king Rudrasena II.[76][74][77][78] According to an inscription at Nagarjunakonda, Iksvaku king Virapurushadatta had multiple wives,[79] including Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of the ruler ofUjjain (Uj(e)nika mahara(ja) balika).[76][74][75]
The region ofSanchi-Vidisha was again captured from the Satavahanas during the rule of Rudrasena II (255-278 CE), as shown by finds of Rudrasena II's coinage in the area.[73] The region would then remain under Western Satrap rule until the 4th century CE, as attested by theKanakerha inscription.[73]
The last Kshatrapa ruler of the Chastana family wasVisvasena (Vishwasen, r.293–304 CE), brother and successor toBhartrdaman and son of Rudrasena II. A coin of Visvasena was found in excavations at theAjanta Caves, in the burnt-brick monastery facing the caves on the right bank of the riverWaghora.[80]
A new family took over, started by the rule ofRudrasimha II (r. 304–348 CE). He declared on his coins to be the son of a Lord (Svami) Jivadaman.[83] His rule is partly coeval with that of other rulers, who were his sons as written on their coins and may have been sub-kings:Yasodaman II (r. 317–332 CE) andRudradaman II (r. 332–348 CE).
Under Rudrasimha II, the Western Satraps are known to have maintained their presence in theCentral Indian areas ofVidisha/Sanchi/Eran well into the 4th century: during his rule, in 319 CE, a Saka ruler inscribed theKanakerha inscription,[84] on the hill ofSanchi mentioning the construction of a well by the Saka chief and "righteous conqueror" (dharmaviyagi mahadandanayaka)Sridharavarman (339-368 CE).[73] Another inscription of the same Sridhavarman with his military commander is known fromEran.[73] These inscriptions point to the extent of Saka rule as of the time of Rudrasimha II.
The construction of Buddhist monuments in the area ofGujarat during the later part of Western Satrap rule is attested with the site ofDevnimori, which incorporatesviharas and astupa. Coins of Rudrasimha were found inside theBuddhiststupa of Devnimori.[85] The Buddha images in Devnimori clearly show the influence of theGreco-Buddhist art ofGandhara,[81] and have been described as examples of the Western Indian art of the Western Satraps.[81] It has been suggested that the art of Devnimori represented a Western Indian artistic tradition that was anterior to the rise ofGupta Empire art, and that it may have influenced not only the latter, but also the art of theAjanta Caves,Sarnath and other places from the 5th century onward.[85]
Overall, the Western Satraps may have played a role in the transmission of theart of Gandhara to the westernDeccan region.[86]
After a period of control of the areas as far asGandhara by theKushano-Sasanians, theSasanian Empire further expanded into the northwest of the subcontinent, particularly in the regions of Gandhara andPunjab, from the time ofShapur II circa 350 CE.[87] Further south, as far as the mouth of theIndus river, the Sasanians exerted some sort of control or influence, as suggested by theSasanian coinage of Sindh.[88][89] It is probable that the Sasanian expansion in India, which put an end to the remnants ofKushan rule, was also made in part at the expense of the Western Satraps.[90]
The Central Indian region aroundVidisha/Sanchi andEran had been occupied by a Saka ruler namedSridharavarman, who his known from theKanakerha inscription at Sanchi, and another inscription with his Naga general at Eran.[73] AtEran, it seems that Sridharavarman's inscription is succeeded by a monument and an inscription byGupta EmpireSamudragupta (r.336-380 CE), established "for the sake of augmenting his fame", who may therefore have ousted Sridharavarman's Sakas in his campaigns to the West.[91] Sridharavarman is probably the "Saka" ruler mentioned in theAllahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta, as having "paid homage" to the Gupta Emperor,[92] forced to "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces".[93]
Rudrasimha III seems to have been the last of the Western Satrap rulers.[94] A fragment from theNatya-darpana mentions that theGupta kingRamagupta, the elder brother ofChandragupta II, decided to expand his kingdom by attacking the Western Satraps inGujarat.
The campaign soon took a turn for the worse and the Gupta army was trapped. The Saka king, Rudrasimha III, demanded that Ramagupta hand over his wife Dhruvadevi in exchange for peace. To avoid the ignominy, the Guptas decided to send Madhavasena, a courtesan and a beloved of Chandragupta, disguised as the queen. However, Chandragupta changed the plan and himself went to the Saka King disguised as the queen. He then killed Rudrasimha and later his own brother, Ramagupta. Dhruvadevi was then married to Chandragupta.
The Western Satraps were eventually conquered by emperor Chandragupta II. Inscriptions of a victoriousChandragupta II in the year 412-413 CE can be found on the railing near the Eastern Gateway of the Great Stupa inSanchi.[95]
The glorious Candragupta (II), (...) who proclaims in the world the good behaviour of the excellent people, namely, the dependents (of the king), and who has acquired banners of victory and fame in many battles
— Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II, 412-413 CE.[96]
The Gupta rulerSkandagupta (455-467 CE) is known for a long inscription where he describes himself as "the ruler of the earth" on a large rock atJunagadh, inGujarat, next to the older inscriptions ofAshoka andRudradaman I, confirming the Gupta hold on the western regions.[97]
Following these conquests, the silver coins of the Gupta kingsChandragupta II and his sonKumaragupta I adopted the Western Satrap design (itself derived from theIndo-Greeks) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle (Garuda, the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing thechaitya hill with star and crescent on the reverse.[98]
![Coin of Gupta ruler Chandragupta II (r.380–415) in the style of the Western Satraps.[98]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSilver_Coin_of_Chandragupta_II.jpg)
![Coin of Gupta ruler Kumaragupta I (r.414–455) (Western territories).[98]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSilver_Coin_of_Kumaragupta_I.jpg)
![Coin of Gupta ruler Skandagupta (r.455-467), in the style of the Western Satraps.[98]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aGupta_Kings._Skandagupta._AD_455-467.jpg)
The campaigns of Chandragupta II brought an end to nearly four centuries of Saka rule on the subcontinent. This period also corresponds to the wane of the very lastKushan rulers in thePunjab and the arrival of theKidarite Huns, the firstHuna invaders from the steppes ofCentral Asia. Less than a century later, theAlchon Huns in turn invaded northern India, bringing an end to theGupta Empire and the Classical period of India.
The Kshatrapas have a very rich and interesting coinage. It was based on the coinage of the earlierIndo-Greek Kings, with Greek or pseudo-Greek legend and stylised profiles of royal busts on the obverse. The reverse of the coins, however, is original and typically depict a thunderbolt and an arrow, and later, a chaitya or three-arched hill and river symbol with a crescent and the sun, within a legend in Brahmi. These coins are very informative, since they record the name of the King, of his father, and the date of issue, and have helped clarify the early history of India.
From the reigns ofJivadaman andRudrasimha I, the date of minting of each coin, reckoned in theSaka era, is usually written on the obverse behind the king's head inBrahmi numerals, allowing for a quite precise datation of the rule of each king.[99] This is a rather uncommon case in Indian numismatics. Some, such as the numismat R.C Senior considered that these dates might correspond to the much earlierAzes era instead.
Also the father of each king is systematically mentioned in the reverse legends, which allows reconstruction of the regnal succession.
Kharoshthi, a script in use in more northern territories (area ofGandhara), is employed together with theBrahmi script and theGreek script on the first coins of the Western Satraps, but is finally abandoned from the time ofChastana.[100] From that time, only the Brahmi script would remain, together with the pseudo-Greek script on the facing, to write thePrakrit language employed by the Western satraps. Occasionally, the legends are inSanskrit instead.
The coins ofNahapana bear the Greek script legend "PANNIΩ IAHAPATAC NAHAΠANAC", transliteration of the Prakrit "Raño Kshaharatasa Nahapanasa": "In the reign of Kshaharata Nahapana". The coins ofCastana also have a readable legend "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC CIASTANCA", transliteration of the Prakrit "Raño Kshatrapasa Castana": "In the reign of the Satrap Castana". After these two rulers, the legend in Greek script becomes denaturated, and seems to lose all signification, only retaining an aesthetic value. By the 4th century, the coins ofRudrasimha II exhibit the following type of meaningless legend in corrupted Greek script: "...ΛIOΛVICIVIIIΛ...".[101]
The coins of the Kshatrapas were also very influential and imitated by neighbouring or later dynasties, such as the Satavahanas, and theGuptas. Silver coins of the Gupta kingsChandragupta II and his sonKumaragupta I adopted the Western Satrap design (itself derived from theIndo-Greeks) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle (Garuda, the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing thechaitya hill with star and crescent on the reverse.[98]
The Western Satrap coin design was also adopted by the subsequent dynasty of theTraikutakas (388–456) or theKingdom of Valabhi (475–776).[103]
Sudarshan Lake of the Satrap period is mentioned in major rock edicts ofJunagadh but no trace of it remains. Six inscription-stones calledLashtis of 1st century were recovered from a hillock near Andhau village in the Khavda region ofKutch and were moved to theKutch Museum inBhuj. They are the earliest dated monuments of the Satrap period and were erected in the time of Rudradaman I.[104]
The large number of stone inscriptions from Kutch and Saurastra as well as hundreds of coins throughout Gujarat are found belonging to the Satrap period. The earlier caves atSana,Junagadh,Dhank,Talaja, Sidhasar, Prabhas Patan and Ranapar in the Barada Hills are mostly plain and austere in looks except some carvings in theBava Pyara Caves of Junagadh. They are comparable to Andhra-Satrap period caves in Deccan. As they have almost no carvings, the determination of their date and chronology is difficult. TheUparkot Caves of Junagadh and theKhambhalida Caves belong to the later years of the Satraps.[105] Thestupas excavated at Boria and Intwa near Junagadh belonged to the Satrap period. Thestupa excavated at Shamlaji probably belonged to this period or to the Gupta period.[106]
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In what has been described as "the great linguisticalparadox of India",Sanskrit inscriptions first appeared much later thanPrakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.[107] This is because Prakrit, in its multiple variants, had been favoured since the time of the influentialEdicts of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE).[107]
Besides a few examples from the 1st century BCE, most of the early Sanskrit inscriptions date to the time of theIndo-Scythian rulers, either theNorthern Satraps aroundMathura for the earliest ones, or, slightly later, the closely related Western Satraps in western and central India.[108][109] It is thought that they became promoters of Sanskrit as a way to show their attachment to Indian culture: according to Salomon "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite".[109]
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In western India, the first known inscription in Sanskrit appears to have been made byUshavadata, son-in-law of the Western Satrap rulerNahapana, at the front of Cave no.10 in theNasik Caves. The inscription dates to the early 2nd century CE, and has hybrid features.[111]
TheJunagadh rock inscription of Western Satraps rulerRudradaman I (c. 150 AD,Gujarat) is the first long inscription in fairly standard Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era. It represents a turning point in Sanskrit epigraphy, states Salomon, being "the first extensive record in the poetic style" in "more or less standard Sanskrit".[111] The Rudradaman inscription is "not pure classical Sanskrit", but with few epic-vernacular Sanskrit exceptions, it approaches high classical Sanskrit.[111] It is important because it is likely the prototype of the extensive Sanskrit inscriptions of theGupta Empire era.[111] These inscriptions are also in theBrāhmī script.[115]During the reign of Rudradaman, circa 150 CE, it is also known that the Greek writerYavanesvara translated theYavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit, for "the use of those who could not speak Greek", a translation which became an authority for all later astrology works in India.[116]
The spread of the usage of Sanskrit inscriptions to the south can also probably be attributed to the influence of the Western Satraps, who were in close relation with southern Indian rulers: according to Salomon "aNagarjunakonda memorial pillar inscription of the time of KingRudrapurusadatta attests to a marital alliance between the Western Ksatrapas and theIksvaku rulers of Nagarjunakonda".[109][78] TheNagarjunakonda inscriptions are the earliest substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd-century to early 4th-century CE. These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and to theShaivism tradition of Hinduism, and parts of them reflect both standard Sanskrit and hybridised Sanskrit.[117] An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd-century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and Buddhism.[118] After the 3rd-century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many have survived.[119]
Sha-sta-na).[47] Kushan period.It is still unclear whether the Western Satraps were independent rulers or vassals of theKushan Empire (30–375 CE). The continued use of the word "Satrap" on their coin would suggest a recognised subjection to a higher ruler, possibly the Kushan emperor.[120]
Also, a statue ofChastana was found inMathura at the Temple of Mat together with the famous statues ofVima Kadphises andKanishka. The statue has the inscription "Shastana" (Middle Brahmi script:Sha-sta-na).[47] This also would suggest at least alliance and friendship, if not vassalage. Finally Kanishka claims in theRabatak inscription that his power extends toUjjain, the classical capital of the Western Satrap realm. This combined with the presence of the Chastana statue side by side with Kanishka would also suggest Kushan alliance with the Western Satraps.
Finally, following the period of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area ofMathura, the "Great Satrap"Kharapallana and the "Satrap"Vanaspara are known from an inscription inSarnath to have been feudatories of the Kushans.[5]
Generally, the position taken by modern scholarship is that the Western Satraps were vassals of the Kushans, at least in the early period untilRudradaman I conquered theYaudheyas, who are usually thought to be Kushan vassals. The question is not considered perfectly settled.
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{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)If Konow is right, then the length of time for Ksatrapa rule in the Nasik-Karla-Junnar region would be at least thirty-fire years.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
