TheWestern Desert language, orWati, is adialect cluster ofAustralian Aboriginal languages in thePama–Nyungan family.
The nameWati tends to be used when considering the various varieties to be distinct languages,Western Desert when considering them dialects of a single language, orWati asWarnman plus the Western Desert cluster.
The speakers of the various dialects of the Western Desert Language traditionally lived across much of the desert areas of Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory. MostWestern Desert people live in communities on or close to their traditional lands, although some now live in one of the towns fringing the desert area such asKalgoorlie,Laverton,Alice Springs,Port Augusta,Meekatharra,Halls Creek andFitzroy Crossing.
The following is a partial list of Western Desert communities:
The Western Desert Language consists of a network of closely related dialects; the names of some of these have become quite well known (such asPitjantjatjara) and they are often referred to as "languages".[2]
As the whole group of dialects that constitutes the language does not have its own name, it is usually referred to as the Western Desert Language. WDL speakers referring to the overall language use various terms includingwangka ("language") orwangka yuti ("clear speech"). For native speakers, the language is mutually intelligible across its entire range.
Following are some of the named varieties of the Western Desert Language.
| Language/dialect | People | Notes | AIATSIS Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Antakarinya dialect | Antakarinya people | C5: Antikirinya[3] | |
| Kartujarra dialect | Kartujarra people | A51: Kartujarra[4] | |
| Kokatha dialect | Kokatha people | C3: Kokatha[5] | |
| Two dialects of the Western Desert language have been named 'Kukatja';Kukatja (A68) andKukatja (C7) | Kukatja (A68) andKukatja (C7) | A68 is in the north of Western Australia nearLake Gregory, and C7 is west ofHaasts Bluff in central Australia.[6][7] A68 is one of the dialects that make upMartu Wangka at Jigalong.[8]: iii C7 call themselves 'Luritja' now.[6] | A68: Kukatja & C7: Kukatja[6][7] |
| Kuwarra dialect | Kuwarra people | There is little information regarding the language but the people are well attested.[9][10] | A16: Kuwarra[11] |
| Luritja dialect | Luritja people | The Kukatja (C7) call themselves 'Luritja' now.[6] Pintupi and Luritja are two similar but overlapping dialects.[12][13] | C7.1: Luritja[12] |
| Manyjilyjarra dialect | Manyjilyjarra people | One of the dialects that make upMartu Wangka at Jigalong.[8]: iii | A51.1: Manyjilyjarra[14] |
| Mantjintjarra dialect | Mantjintjarra people | A33: Mantjintjarra[15] | |
| Martu Wangka dialect | Martu people | Martu Wangka refers to either a dialect found at and aroundJigalong, Western Australia[8]: iii [16] or many different dialect groups in theGibson,Little Sandy andGreat Sandy deserts.[16] | A86: Martu Wangka[16] |
| Nakako dialect | Nakako people | Little is known of the people and their language[17] | A32: Nakako[18] |
| Ngaanyatjarra dialect | Ngaanyatjarra people | A38:Ngaanyatjarra[19] | |
| Ngaatjatjarra dialect | Ngaatjatjarra people | A43: Ngaatjatjarra[20] | |
| Ngalia dialect | Ngalia people | C2: Ngalia[21] | |
| Pindiini/Wangkatha/Wangkatja dialect | Pindiini/Wangkatha/Wangkatja people | These three dialects & people have been hardly distinguished.[22][23][24] | A102: Pindiini, A12: Wangkatha & A103: Wangkatja[22][23][24] |
| Pintupi dialect | Pintupi people | Pintupi and Luritja are two similar but overlapping dialects.[12][13] | C10: Pintupi[13] |
| Pitjantjatjara dialect | Pitjantjatjara people | C6: Pitjantjatjara[25] | |
| Putijarra dialect | Putijarra people | One of the dialects which make up Martu Wangka at Jigalong[8]: iii | A54: Putijarra[26] |
| Tjupan dialect | Tjupan people | A31: Tjupan[27] | |
| Wangkajunga dialect | Wangkajunga people | A87: Wangkajunga[28] | |
| Yankunytjatjara dialect | Yankunytjatjara people | C4: Yankunytjatjara[29] | |
| Yulparija dialect | Yulparija people | A67: Yulparija[30] |
The Western Desert Language has thousands of speakers, making it one of the strongest indigenous Australian languages. The language is still being transmitted to children and has substantial amounts of literature, particularly in the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara dialects in South Australia where there was formerly a long-running bilingual program.[citation needed]
In the following tables of the WDL sound system, symbols in⟨angle brackets⟩ give a typical practical orthography used by many WDL communities. Further details of orthographies in use in different areas are given below. Phonetic values inIPA are shown in [square brackets].[citation needed]
| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| Close | i⟨i⟩iː⟨ii⟩ | u⟨u⟩uː⟨uu⟩ |
| Open | a⟨a⟩aː⟨aa⟩ | |
The Western Desert Language has the common (for Australia) three-vowel system with a length distinction creating a total of six possible vowels.[citation needed]
| Peripheral | Laminal | Apical | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilabial | Velar | Palatal | Alveolar | Retroflex | |
| Plosive | p⟨p⟩ | k⟨k⟩ | c⟨tj⟩ | t⟨t⟩ | ʈ⟨rt⟩ |
| Nasal | m⟨m⟩ | ŋ⟨ng⟩ | ɲ⟨ny⟩ | n⟨n⟩ | ɳ⟨rn⟩ |
| Trill | r⟨rr⟩ | ||||
| Lateral | ʎ⟨ly⟩ | l⟨l⟩ | ɭ⟨rl⟩ | ||
| Approximant | w⟨w⟩ | j⟨y⟩ | ɻ⟨r⟩ | ||
As shown in the chart, the WDL distinguishes five positions of articulation, and has oral and nasal occlusives at each position. The stops have nophonemicvoice distinction but display voiced and unvoicedallophones; stops are usually unvoiced at the beginning of a word, and voiced elsewhere. In both positions, they are usually unaspirated. There are nofricative consonants.[citation needed]
While the dialects of the WDL have very similar phonologies there are several different orthographies in use, resulting from the preferences of the different early researchers as well as the fact that the WDL region extends into three states (Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory), with each having its own history of language research and educational policy.[citation needed]
Most of the peoples of central Australia have (or at one point had)signed forms of their languages. Among the Western Desert peoples, sign language has been reported specifically for Kardutjara and Yurira Watjalku,[31] Ngaatjatjarra (Ngada),[32] and Manjiljarra. Signed Kardutjara and Yurira Watjalku are known to have been well-developed, though it is not clear from records that signed Ngada and Manjiljarra were.[33]
