Vulcan belongs to the most ancient stage of Roman religion:Varro, the ancient Roman scholar and writer, citing theAnnales Maximi, records that kingTitus Tatius dedicated altars to a series of deities including Vulcan.[3]
The origin of the name is unclear. Roman tradition maintained that it was related toLatin words connected to lightning (fulgur, fulgere, fulmen), which in turn was thought of as related to flames.[4] This interpretation is supported byWalter William Skeat in his etymological dictionary as meaninglustre.[5]
It has been supposed that his name was not Latin but related to that of theCretan godVelchanos, a god of nature and the nether world.[6]Wolfgang Meid has disputed this identification asfantastic.[7] Meid andVasily Abaev have proposed on their side a matching theonym in theOssetic legendary smith of theNart sagaKurd-Alä-Wärgon ("the Alan smith Wärgon"), and postulated an originalPIE smith god named *wl̩kānos.[8] But since the name in its normal form is stable and has a clear meaning—kurd ("smith") +Alaeg (the name of one of the Nartic families)+on ("of the family")—this hypothesis has been considered unacceptable byDumezil.[9]
Christian-Joseph Guyonvarc'h has proposed the identification with theIrish nameOlcan (OgamicUlccagni, in the genitive).[citation needed] Gérard Capdeville finds a continuity between CretanMinoan godVelchanos and EtruscanVelchans. The Minoan god's identity would be that of a young deity, master of fire and companion of theGreat Goddess.[10]
According toMartin L. West,Volcanus may represent a god of the fire named*Volca and attached to the suffix-no-, the typical appendage indicating the god's domain inIndo-European languages.*Volca could therefore be a cognate of the Sanskrit wordsulkā ("darting flame") and/orvárcas- ("brilliance, glare").[8]
Vulcan's oldest shrine in Rome, called theVulcanal, was situated at the foot of theCapitoline in theForum Romanum, and was reputed to date to the archaic period of thekings of Rome,[11][12] and to have been established on the site byTitus Tatius,[13] theSabine co-king, with a traditional date in the 8th century BC. It was the view of theEtruscanharuspices that a temple of Vulcan should be located outside the city,[14] and the Vulcanal may originally have been on or outside thecity limits before they expanded to include theCapitoline Hill.[1] The Volcanalia sacrifice was offered here to Vulcan, on August 23.[11] Vulcan also had a temple on theCampus Martius, which was in existence by 214 BC.[1][15]
The Romans identified Vulcan with the Greeksmith-godHephaestus.[16] Vulcan became associated like his Greek counterpart with the constructive use of fire inmetalworking. A fragment of a Greek pot showing Hephaestus found at the Volcanal has been dated to the 6th century BC, suggesting that the two gods were already associated at this date.[12] However, Vulcan had a stronger association than Hephaestus with fire's destructive capacity, and a major concern of his worshippers was to encourage the god to avert harmful fires.
The festival of Vulcan, the Vulcanalia, was celebrated on August 23 each year, when the summer heat placed crops and granaries most at risk of burning.[1][17] During the festival,bonfires were created in honour of the god, into which livefish or small animals were thrown as a sacrifice, to be consumed in the place of humans.[18]
The Vulcanalia was part of the cycle of the four festivities of the second half of August (Consualia on August 21, Vulcanalia on 23, Opiconsivia on 25 and Vulturnalia on 27) related to the agrarian activities of that month and in symmetric correlation with those of the second half of July (Lucaria on July 19 and 21, Neptunalia on 23 and Furrinalia on 25). While the festivals of July dealt with untamed nature (woods) and waters (superficial waters the Neptunalia and underground waters the Furrinalia) at a time of danger caused by their relative deficiency, those of August were devoted to the results of human endeavour on nature with the storing of harvested grain (Consualia) and their relationship to human society and regality (Opiconsivia) which at that time were at risk and required protection from the dangers of the excessive strength of the two elements of fire (Vulcanalia) and wind (Vulturnalia) reinforced by dryness.[19]
It is recorded that during the Vulcanalia people used to hang their clothes and fabrics under the sun.[20] This habit might reflect a theological connection between Vulcan and the divinized Sun.[21]
Another custom observed on this day required that one should start working by the light of a candle, probably to propitiate a beneficial use of fire by the god.[22] In addition to the Vulcanalia of August 23, the date of May 23, which was the second of the two annualTubilustria or ceremonies for the purification of trumpets, was sacred to Vulcan.[17][23]
TheLudi Vulcanalici, were held just once on August 23, 20 BC, within the temple precinct of Vulcan, and used by Augustus to mark the treaty withParthia and the return of thelegionary standards that had been lost at theBattle of Carrhae in 53 BC.
Aflamen, one of theflamines minors, namedflamen Vulcanalis was in charge of the cult of the god. The flamen Vulcanalis officiated at a sacrifice to the goddessMaia, held every year at theKalendae of May.[24]
Vulcan was among the gods placated after theGreat Fire of Rome in AD 64.[25] In response to the same fire,Domitian (emperor 81–96) established a new altar to Vulcan on theQuirinal Hill. At the same time a redbull-calf and redboar were added to the sacrifices made on the Vulcanalia, at least in that region of the city.[26]
The nature of Vulcan is connected with religious ideas concerning fire; the Roman concept of Vulcan seems to associate him to both the destructive and the fertilizing powers of fire.
In the first aspect, he is worshipped in theVolcanalia, to avert its potential danger to harvested wheat. His cult is located outside the boundaries of the original city to avoid the risk of fires caused by the god in the city itself.[27] This power is, however, considered useful if directed against enemies and such a choice for the location of the god's cult could be interpreted in this way too. The same idea underlies the dedication of the arms of the defeated enemies,[28] as well as those of the surviving general in adevotion ritual to the god.[29]
Through comparative interpretation this aspect has been connected by Dumézil to the third or defensive fire in the theory of the three Vedic sacrificial fires.[30] In such theory three fires are necessary to the discharge of a religious ceremony: the hearth of the landlord, which has the function of establishing a referential on Earth in that precise location connecting it with Heaven; the sacrificial fire, which conveys the offer to Heaven; and the defensive fire, which is usually located on the southern boundary of the sacred space and has a protective function against evil influences. Since the territory of the city of Rome was seen as a magnified temple in itself, the three fires should be identified as the hearth of the landlord in the temple of Vesta (aedes Vestae); the sacrificial fires of each temple, shrine or altar; and the defensive fire in the temple of Vulcan.
Another meaning of Vulcan is related to male fertilizing power. In various Latin and Roman legends he is the father of famous characters, such as the founder ofPraenesteCaeculus,[31]Cacus,[32] a primordial being or king, later transformed into a monster that inhabited the site of theAventine in Rome, and Roman kingServius Tullius. In a variant of the story of the birth ofRomulus the details are identical even though Vulcan is not explicitly mentioned.[33]
Punishment ofIxion: in the center isMercury holding thecaduceus and on the rightJuno sits on her throne. Behind herIris stands and gestures. On the left is Vulcanus (blond figure) standing behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it.Nephele sits at Mercury's feet; a Roman fresco from the eastern wall of thetriclinium in theHouse of the Vettii,Pompeii,Fourth Style (60–79 AD).
Some scholars think that Vulcan might be the unknown god who impregnated goddessesFortuna Primigenia at Praeneste andFeronia atAnxur. In this case, he would be the father ofJupiter.[34] This view, however, is in conflict with that which links the goddess to Jupiter, as his daughter (puer Jovis) and his mother too, asprimigenia, meaning "primordial".
In all of the above-mentioned stories, the god's fertilizing power is related to that of the fire of the house hearth. In the case of Caeculus, his mother was impregnated by a spark that dropped on her womb from the hearth while she was sitting nearby.[35]Servius Tullius' motherOcresia was impregnated by a male sex organ that miraculously appeared in the ashes of the sacrificial ara, at the order ofTanaquil,Tarquinius Priscus' wife.[36]Pliny the Elder tells the same story, but states that the father was theLar familiaris.[37] The divinity of the child was recognized when his head was surrounded by flames and he remained unharmed.[38]
Through the comparative analysis of these myths, archaeologistAndrea Carandini opines thatCacus andCaca were the sons of Vulcan and of a local divine being or a virgin as in the case of Caeculus. Cacus and Caca would represent the metallurgic and the domestic fire, projections of Vulcan and ofVesta.
These legends date back to the time of preurbanLatium. Their meaning is quite clear: at the divine level Vulcan impregnates a virgin goddess and generates Jupiter, the king of the gods; at the human level he impregnates a local virgin (perhaps of royal descent) and generates a king.[39]
The first mention of a ritual connection between Vulcan and Vesta is thelectisternium of 217 BC. Other facts that seem to hint at this connection are the relative proximity of the two sanctuaries andDionysius of Halicarnassus' testimony that both cults had been introduced to Rome byTitus Tatius to comply with a vow he had made in battle.[40]Varro confirms the fact.[41]
Vulcan is related to two equally ancient female goddesses,Stata Mater,[42] perhaps the goddess who stops fires andMaia.[43]
Herbert Jennings Rose interprets Maia as a goddess related to growth by connecting her name with IE root *MAG.[44]Macrobius relates Cincius' opinion that Vulcan's female companion is Maia. Cincius justifies his view on the grounds that theflamen Volcanalis sacrificed to her at the Kalendae of May. In Piso's view, the companion of the god isMaiestas.[45]
According toGellius as well, Maia was associated with Vulcan; and he backs up his view by quoting the ritual prayers in use by Roman priests.[46][47]
Vulcan is the patron of trades related to ovens (cooks, bakers, confectioners) as attested in the works ofPlautus,[48]Apuleius (the god is the cook at the wedding ofAmor and Psyche)[49] and inVespa's short poem in theLatin Anthology about the litigation between a cook and a baker.[50]
The origin of the Roman god of fire Vulcan has been traced back to the Cretan godVelchanos by Gérard Capdeville, primarily under the suggestion of the close similarity of their names.[52] Cretan Velchanos is a young god of Mediterranean or Near Eastern origin who has mastership of fire and is the companion of theGreat Goddess. These traits are preserved in Latium only in his sonsCacus,Caeculus, andServius Tullius. At Praeneste the uncles of Caeculus are known as Digiti,[53] a noun that connects them to the CretanDactyli.
Velchanos was the supreme god of early Cretan religion, where the festival of theβελχάνια (Velchania) as well as a month Ϝελχάνιοσ (Welchanios) are attested: a gloss by Hesychius states that "Velchanos is Zeus among the Cretan".[54] He was the first god of the cavern ofMount Ida, where he had an oracle, and was honoured also in Cyprus.
His name is very similar to that of Latin god Volcanus, who himself was considered to be the father ofCaeculus andServius Tullius, not to mention Romulus in the version transmitted by Promathion, which is very similar to the legend of Servius.
The founder of Rome has a close relationship with this god as he founded theVolcanal and there he dedicated a quadriga with his own statue after his first victory. It is there too that a part of the tradition locates the place of his death: the site was marked by theLapis Niger: Festus writes "Niger lapis in Comitio locum funestum significat, ut ali, Romuli morti destinatum...". On the day of theVolcanalia (August 23) a sacrifice was offered to Hora Quirini, paredra ofQuirinus with whom the deified Romulus was identified. As the Consualia were mentioned first in connection with the founding of Rome in the episode of the abduction of the Sabine women, as the Volcanalia are celebrated two days later and two days before theOpiconsivia, and as the name Volcanus resembles that of the ancient Cretan god honoured in the Βελχ?νια who presided over initiation rites, the Consualia must have a meaning of integration into the citizenship. This provides an explanation for the choice of the festival of theParilia as the date of the foundation of Rome, since these are first of all the festival of theiuniores. Festus writes: "Parilibus Romulus Vrbem condidit, quem diem festum praecipue habebant iuniores." The date of April 21 marked the starting point of the process of initiation of the future new citizens which concluded four months later on the ceremony of the Consualia, which involves athletic games and marriages.[55]
Through his identification with theHephaestus ofGreek mythology, Vulcan came to be considered as the manufacturer of art, arms,iron, jewelry, and armor for various gods and heroes, including the lightning bolts of Jupiter. He was the son ofJupiter andJuno, and the husband ofMaia andAphrodite (Venus). Hissmithy was believed to be situated underneathMount Etna inSicily.[56]
As the son of Jupiter, the king of the gods, and Juno, the queen of the gods, Vulcan should have been quite handsome, but baby Vulcan was small and ugly with a red, bawling face. One day, years later, when he was a boy, there was an argument between his fatherJupiter and his motherJuno, Vulcan sided with his mother. His father was naturally furious, and hurled him off the top ofMount Olympus.Vulcan fell down for a day and a night, landing in the volcano Etna. Unfortunately, one of his legs broke as he hit the ground, and never developed properly. Vulcan sank to the depths of the ocean, where the sea-nymphThetis found him and took him to her underwater grotto, wanting to raise him as her own son.
Vulcan had a happy childhood with dolphins as his playmates and pearls as his toys. Late in his childhood, he found the remains of a fisherman's fire on the beach and became fascinated with an unextinguished coal, still red-hot and glowing.
Vulcan carefully shut this precious coal in a clamshell, took it back to his underwater grotto, and made a fire with it. On the first day after that, Vulcan stared at this fire for hours on end. On the second day, he discovered that when he made the fire hotter with bellows, certain stones sweated iron, silver or gold. On the third day he beat the cooled metal into shapes: bracelets, chains, swords and shields. Vulcan made pearl-handled knives and spoons for his foster mother, and for himself he made a silver chariot with bridles so that seahorses could transport him quickly. He even made slave-girls of gold to wait on him and do his bidding.
Later, Thetis left her underwater grotto to attend a dinner party on Mount Olympus wearing a beautiful necklace of silver and sapphires that Vulcan had made for her. Juno admired the necklace and asked where she could get one. Thetis became flustered, causing Juno to become suspicious; and, at last, the queen god discovered the truth: the baby she had once rejected had grown into a talentedblacksmith.
Juno was furious and demanded that Vulcan return home, a demand that he refused. However, he did send Juno a beautifully constructed chair made of silver and gold, inlaid with mother-of-pearl. Juno was delighted with this gift but, as soon as she sat in it her weight triggered hidden springs and metal bands sprung forth to hold her fast. The chair was a cleverly designed trap. It wasJupiter who finally saved the day: he promised that if Vulcan released Juno he would give him a wife,Venus the goddess of love and beauty. Vulcan agreed and married Venus.[57]
Vulcan later built a smithy underMount Etna on the island ofSicily. It was said that whenever Venus was unfaithful, Vulcan grew angry and beat the red-hot metal with such a force that sparks and smoke rose up from the top of the mountain, creating a volcanic eruption.[58]
To punish mankind for stealing the secrets of fire, Jupiter ordered the other gods to make a poisoned gift for man. Vulcan's contribution to the beautiful and foolishPandora was to mould her from clay and to give her form. He also made the thrones for the other gods onMount Olympus.
The main and most ancient sanctuary of Vulcan in Rome was theVolcanal, located in thearea Volcani, an open-air space at the foot of theCapitolium, in the northwestern corner of theRoman Forum, with an area dedicated to the god and a perennial fire. It was one of the most ancient Roman shrines.[60]According to Roman tradition the sanctuary had been dedicated byRomulus. He had placed on the site a bronzequadriga dedicated to the god, a war trophy from theFidenates. According to Plutarch, though, the war in question was that againstCameria, that occurred sixteen years after the foundation of Rome.[61] There Romulus would have also dedicated to Vulcan a statue of himself and an inscription in Greek characters listing his successes.[62] Plutarch states that Romulus was represented crowned byVictory.[61] Moreover, he would have planted a sacred lotus tree[63] in the sanctuary that was still living at the time ofPliny the Elder and was said to be as old as the city.[64] The hypothesis has been presented that theVolcanal was founded when the Forum was still outside the town walls.[65]
TheVolcanal was perhaps used as a cremation site, as suggested by the early use of the Forum as a burial site.[66] Livy mentions it twice, in 189 and 181 BC, for the prodigies of a rain of blood.[67]
Thearea Volcani was probably alocus substructus. It was five meters higher than theComitium[68] and from it the kings and the magistrates of the beginnings of the republic addressed the people, before the building of therostra.[69]
On the Volcanal there was also a statue ofHoratius Cocles[70] that had been moved here from theComitium,locus inferior, after it had been struck by lightning.Aulus Gellius writes that someharuspices were summoned to expiate the prodigy and they had it moved to a lower site, where sunlight never reached, out of their hatred for the Romans. The fraud was revealed, however, and the haruspices were executed. Later it was found that the statue should be placed on a higher site, thus it was placed in thearea Volcani.[71]
According toSamuel Ball Platner, in the course of time theVolcanal would have been more and more encroached upon by the surrounding buildings until it was totally covered over. Nonetheless the cult was still alive in the first half of the imperial era, as is testified by the finding of a dedica of Augustus's dating from 9 BC.[73]
At the beginning of the 20th century, behind theArch of Septimius Severus were found some ancient tufaceous foundations that probably belonged to the Volcanal and traces of a rocky platform, 3.95 meters long and 2.80 meters wide, that had been covered with concrete and painted in red. Into its upper surface are dug several narrow channels and in front of it are the remains of a draining channel made of tufaceous slabs. The hypothesis has been suggested that this was Vulcan'sarea itself. The rock shows signs of damages and repairs. On the surface there are some hollows, either round or square, that bear resemblance to graves and were interpreted as such in the past,[74] particularly byVon Duhn. After the discovery of cremation tombs in the Forum the latter scholar maintained that the Volcanal was originally the site where corpses were cremated.[75]
Another temple was erected to the god before 215 BC in theCampus Martius, near theCircus Flaminius, where games in his honour were held during the festival of the Volcanalia.[65]
AtOstia the cult of the god, as well as hissacerdos, was the most important of the town. The sacerdos was namedpontifex Vulcani et aedium sacrarum: he had under his jurisdiction all the sacred buildings in town and could give or withhold the authorisation to erect new statues to Eastern divinities. He was chosen for life, perhaps by the council of thedecuriones, and his position was the equivalent of thepontifex maximus in Rome. It was the highest administrative position in the town of Ostia.
He was selected from among people who had already held public office in Ostia or in the imperial administration. The pontifex was the sole authority who had a number of subordinate officials to help discharge his duties, namely threepraetores and two or threeaediles. These were religious offices, different from civil offices of similar name.[76]
On the grounds of a fragmentary inscription found atAnnaba (ancient Hippo Regius), it is considered possible that the writerSuetonius had held this office.[77]
FromStrabon[78] we know that at Pozzuoli there was an area called in Greekagora' of Hephaistos (Lat. Forum Vulcani). The place is a plain where many sulphurous vapour outlets are located (currentlySolfatara).
Pliny the Elder records that nearModena fire came out from soilstatis Vulcano diebus, on fixed days devoted to Vulcan.[79]
In 2013,Reuters reported that the name "Vulcan" was being promoted as a name for "newly discovered" moons ofPluto.[82] The moons had been discovered in 2011 and 2012, bringing the count of knownmoons of Pluto to five. Though the nameVulcan won a popular vote, theInternational Astronomical Union decided in June 2013 to finalize the names asCharon,Styx,Nix,Kerberos, andHydra.[83]
Vulcan is a main character in the novelThe Automation by B.L.A. and G.B. Gabbler. His role is often a "deus ex machina" one, but he and his wife (called Venus) are still essential to the overall plot.[84][85]
Vulcan is a character in the Starz TV seriesAmerican Gods, based on the novel byNeil Gaiman. He is not a character in the novel and is now the "god of guns" in this version, using the forge at his ammunition factory as a symbolic representation of a volcano.[86]
Vulcan is a character in theJohn Prine song, "The Lonesome Friends of Science" from his last album,The Tree of Forgiveness released in 2018.[87]
The M61A1 20mm Cannon fitted to many Western combat aircraft is named for Vulcan as the bringer of fire.
^abcdGeorges Dumézil (1996) [1966].Archaic Roman Religion: Volume One. trans. Philip Krapp. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 320–321.ISBN0-8018-5482-2.
^Corbishley, Mike "Ancient Rome" Warwick Press 1986 Toronto.
^VarroDe Lingua Latina V, X: "...Et arae Sabinum linguam olent, quae Tati regis voto sunt Romae dedicatae: nam, ut annales dicunt, vovit Opi, Florae, Vediovi Saturnoque, Soli, Lunae, Volcano et Summano, itemque Larundae, Termino, Quirino, Vortumno, Laribus, Dianae Lucinaeque...".
^VarroLingua Latina V, 10: "Ignis a gnascendo, quod huic nascitur et omne quod nascitur ignis succendit; ideo calet ut qui denascitur cum amittit ac frigescit. Ab ignis iam maiore vi ac violentia Volcanus dictus. Ab eo quod ignis propter splendor."
^W. W. SkeatEtymological Dictionary of the Benis Language New York 1963 (first published in 1882) s.v.volcano: "cf. Sanskrit varchar-s: lustre".
^Arthur B. CookZeus: a study in Ancient religion 1925 Vol. II, pp. 945 ff.
^W. Meid "Etrusc. Velkhans- Lat. Volcanus"Indogermanische Forschugungen,66 1961.
^G. DumezilLa religion romaine archaïque Paris, 1974, part II, chap. 2. It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 284 n. 12.
^Gérard CapdevilleVolchanus. Rechérches comparatistes sur le culte de Vulcain Rome 1994.
^abSamuel Ball Platner; Thomas Ashby (1929)."Volcanal".A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 583–584. Retrieved2007-07-28.
^abBeard, Mary; John North; Simon Price (1998).Religions of Rome Volume 2: A Sourcebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. no. 1.7c.ISBN0-521-45015-2.
^In Dumézil's interpretation the Vulturnalia were associated with the protection of riping grapes from a hot and dry southwestern wind named Vulturnus, not with the river Tiber, as Mommsen had supposed, or Vulturnus of Campania.
^Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 4914, translated byRobert K. Sheark. (1988).The Roman Empire: Augustus to Hadrian. Translated Documents of Greece and Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. no. 99.ISBN0-521-33887-5.
^PlutarchQuestiones Romanae 47; VitruviusDe architectura I,7,1
^Jacqueline ChampeauxFortuna, I, Fortuna dans la religion romaine archaique Rome, 1982; A. MastrocinqueRomolo. La fondazione di Roma tra storia e leggenda Este, 1993.
^Maiestas and Maia, though, are possibly the same divine person: compare Ovid's explanations of the meaning of the name of the month May in hisFasti: V 1–52 Maiestas; 81–106 Maia both as possible eponyms of May.
^G. CapdevilleVolcanus. Rechérches comparatistes sur le cult de Vulcain Rome 1994. Reviewed by Bernard Sergent inRevue de l'histoire des religions216 1999 4 p. 475-481; Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge inKernos 19969 p. 434-436.
^Solinus II 9; ArnobiusAdversus Nationes III 41, 1; 43, 3.
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