Akan (/əˈkæn/[2]), orTwi-Fante,[3] is the most widely-spokenlanguage of Ghana, and the principal native language of theAkan people, spoken over much of the southern half of Ghana.[4] About 80% of Ghana's population speak Akan as a first or second language,[4] and about 44% of Ghanaians arenative speakers.[4][5] TheBono dialect is also spoken across the border inIvory Coast.[6]
Three dialects were developed as literary standards with distinctorthographies:Asante andAkuapem, collectively known asTwi, andFante.[7][8] Despite beingmutually intelligible,[4][9] they were inaccessible in written form to speakers of the other standards until theAkan Orthography Committee (AOC)'s development of a common Akan orthography in 1978, based mainly onAkuapem dialect.[10] As the first Akan variety to be used for Bible translation, Akuapem had become the prestige dialect.[11]
With theAtlantic slave trade, Akan languages were introduced to theCaribbean andSouth America, notably inSuriname andJamaica, where it heavily influenced the languages spoken by theNdyuka and theJamaican Maroons, also known as theCoromantee.[4] The cultures of the descendants of escaped slaves in the interior of Suriname and theMaroons in Jamaica still retain Akan influences, including theAkan naming practice of naming children after the day of the week on which they are born, e.g. Akwasi/Kwasi for a boy or Akosua for a girl born on a Sunday. In Jamaica and Suriname, theAnansi spider stories are still well-known.[4][9]
Originally, the language was known by local names rather than a single unifying term. Inland Akan groups referred to it as 'Twi' (/tʃwiː,twiː,tʃiː/;[12][13]Akan:[tɕᶣi]), while coastal Akan groups referred to it as 'Fante.[14] After independence, the national language commission adopted 'Akan', a name that had been used for all the languages spoken by theAkan people, which included Twi-Fante and theBia languages, as the name for only Twi-Fante specifically. The broader scope was renamed theCentral Tano languages to avoid confusion. However, many sources still refer to the Central Tano languages as 'Akan'.
The largest Akan migration was toGhana in successive waves between the 11th and 18th centuries. Smaller numbers migrated to the eastern part ofCôte d'Ivoire and parts ofTogo.[15] Within Ghana, they expanded from the north to occupy the southern forest and coastal areas during the 13th century. The Akans have a strong oral history tradition of their past and are also known in for symbolic artifacts of wood, metal and terracotta.[4] Their cultural ideas are expressed in stories and proverbs as well as in designs such as symbols used in carvings and on clothes.[4] The rich Akan culture and history inGhana are areas of research for many disciplines, such as folklore, literary studies,linguistics,anthropology, and history.[4]
Brong and Wasa have limitedmutual intelligibility with each other, and so are separate languages by that standard.[1] Neighboring Brong and Asante are mutually intelligible, though geographically more distant Brong and Fante are less so.[18]Indeed, 'a Fante-speaker will be right in looking on Bron [Bono] as a different language.'[19]
Beforefront vowels, all Asante consonants arepalatalized (orlabio-palatalized), and thestops are to some extentaffricated. Theallophones of/n/ are quite complex. In the table below, palatalized allophones which involve more than minor phonetic palatalization are specified, in the context of the vowel/i/. These sounds do occur before other vowels, such as/a/, though in most cases not commonly.
In Asante,/ɡu/ followed by a vowel is pronounced/ɡʷ/, but inAkuapem it remains/ɡu/. The sequence/nh/ is pronounced[ŋŋ̊].
A word final/k/ can be heard as a glottal stop[ʔ]. There is also a nasalization of/h/ and of/jw/ as[h̃] and[j̃w̃], when occurring before nasal vowels.
The transcriptions in the tables below are in the order /phonemic/, [phonetic]. Note that orthographic⟨dw⟩ is ambiguous; in textbooks,⟨dw⟩ =/ɡ/ may be distinguished from/dw/ with a diacritic:d̩w. Likewise, velar⟨nw⟩ (ŋw) may be transcribedn̩w. Orthographic⟨nu⟩ is palatalized[ɲᶣ].
The Akan dialects have fourteen to fifteen vowels: four to five "tense" vowels (advanced tongue root; +ATR or -RTR), five "lax" vowels (retracted tongue root, +RTR or -ATR), which are not entirely contrastively represented by the seven-vowel orthography, and five nasal vowels, which are not represented at all. All fourteen were distinguished in theGold Coast alphabet of the colonial era. A tongue-root distinction in orthographica is only found in some subdialects of Fante, but not in the literary form; in Asante and Akuapem there are harmonic allophones of/a/, but neither is ATR.[clarification needed] The two vowels writtene (/e/ and/i̙/) ando (/o/ and/u̙/) are often not distinguished in pronunciation.
Akan vowels engage in a form ofvowel harmony with the root of the tongue.[22]
+RTR vowels followed by the -RTR non-mid vowels /i a u/ become -RTR. This is generally reflected in the orthography: That is, orthographiceɛaɔo becomei e a o u. However, it is no longer reflected in the case of subject and possessive pronouns, giving them a consistent spelling. This rule takes precedence over the next one.
After the +RTR non-high vowels /e̙ a̙ o̙/, -RTR mid vowels /e o/ become +RTR high vowels /i̙ u̙/. This is not reflected in the orthography, for both sets of vowels are spelled⟨e o⟩, and in many dialects this rule does not apply, for these vowels have merged.
The phonetic pitch of the three tones depends on their environment, often being lowered after other tones, producing a steady decline known astone terracing.
/H/ tones have the same pitch as a preceding /H/ or /M/ tone within the same tonic phrase, whereas /M/ tones have a lower pitch. That is, the sequences /HH/ and /MH/ have a level pitch, whereas the sequences /HM/ and /MM/ have a falling pitch. /H/ is lowered (downstepped) after a /L/.
/L/ is the default tone, which emerges in situations such as reduplicated prefixes. It is always at bottom of the speaker's pitch range, except in the sequence /HLH/, in which case it is raised in pitch but the final /H/ is still lowered. Thus /HMH/ and /HLH/ are pronounced with distinct but very similar pitches.
After the first "prominent" syllable of a clause, usually the first high tone, there is adownstep. This syllable is usually stressed.[23]
Akan historically employed anoun class system similar to that ofBantu languages. Although this system is now largely defunct, remnants of it persist in modern Akan plural formation, particularly through prefixes and suffixes.[24] The current pluralisation system blends fossilised class prefixes with newer morphological strategies, especially for human nouns. Notably, human nouns have preserved more elements of the old system than non-human nouns and can employ multiple plural-marking strategies simultaneously.[25]
Modern Akan employs several strategies for plural formation, representing a transition from its historical purely prefixal system[25] to a mixed system using both prefixes and suffixes. These strategies vary based on semantic categories, with human nouns showing particularly complex patterns.[26]
Many Akan nouns form their plurals through the addition or replacement ofnasalprefixes (m-,n-), reflecting remnants of the old noun class system.[27]
Singular
Plural
abɔfra "child"
mmɔfra "children"
aboa "animal"
mmoa "animals"
abusua "family"
mmusua "families"
abirekyie "goat"
mmirekyie "goats"
adaka "box"
nnaka "boxes"
adanko "rabbit"
nnanko "rabbits"
aduro "medicine"
nnuro "medicines"
kraman "dog"
nkraman "dogs"
kanea "light", "lamp"
nkanea "lights", "lamps"
safoa "key"
nsafoa "keys"
In this process, the original class prefix (typicallya-) is replaced by a homorganic nasal prefix that assimilates to the initial consonant of the root word. For example, initialab- becomesmm- andad- becomesnn- in plural forms.[28]
A relatively newer morphological development involves using pluralsuffixes, primarily for human and agentive nouns. This development is particularly significant as it shows how Akan is evolving from its historical prefix-based system. Human nouns demonstrate the most complex plural marking, often combining both old prefixal and new suffixal strategies — a pattern that highlights their special status in the language's grammatical system.[29]
With-nom
This suffix is used primarily for kinship and social role terms.
Singular
Plural
agya "father"
agyanom "fathers"
nana "grandparent"/"grandchild"
nananom "grandparents"/"grandchildren"
nua "sibling"
nuanom "siblings"
yere "wife"
yerenom "wives"
With-fo
This suffix is used with profession- or agent-based nouns.
Singular
Plural
ɔkyerɛkyerɛni "teacher"
akyerɛkyerɛfo "teachers"
odiyifo "prophet"
adiyifo "prophets"
ɔsɔfo "priest"
asɔfo "priests"
ɔbayifo "witch"
abayifo "witches"
In some cases, both a prefix and a suffix are used for pluralisation, especially with human nouns (e.g.,onua →enuanom). This double marking represents a unique development in Akan's plural system, where human nouns have not only preserved elements of the old class system but have also incorporated new morphological strategies, resulting in a more complex marking pattern than non-human nouns.
Certain Akan nouns remain unchanged in the plural, representing another way the historical noun class system has been simplified. While human nouns have developed complex plural marking strategies, these invariant nouns — including mass nouns and inherently plural items — have moved in the opposite direction by eliminating plural marking entirely.[30]
Akan originally featured a more extensive system of noun classes marked by singular/plural prefixes.[31] These may be reconstructed as follows:[32]
Singular
Plural
Class
Prefix
Typical domain
Class
Prefix
1
o-/ɔ-
Humans
5
n-
2
a-/e-
Humans, animals, instruments
6
a-/e-
3
i-/e-
Inanimates
4
ɛ-
Over time, this class system has undergone morphological decay. Modern Akan lacks productive class agreement between nouns and adjectives or verbs, and many prefixes have become fossilised elements perceived as part of the noun stem.[33]
The Akan languages have a rich literature in proverbs, folktales, and traditional drama, as well as a new literature in dramas, short stories, and novels.[34] This literature began to be documented in written form in the late 1800s.[35] Later,Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia collected a number of proverbs and folktales, includingFuneral Dirges of the Akan People (1969),Folk Songs of Ghana (1963), andAkan Poetry (1958). Some of the important authors in the language areA. A. Opoku (dramatist),E. J. Osew (dramatist),K. E. Owusu (novelist), andR. A. Tabi (dramatist and novelist).[34] TheBureau of Ghana Languages has been unable to continue printing novels in the language, and the following are out of print:Obreguo, Okrabiri, Afrakoma, Obeede, Fia Tsatsala,andKu Di Fo Nanawu.[36]
In 1978 the AOC established a common orthography for all of Akan, which is used as the medium of instruction inprimary school.[37][38] The Akan language is recognized for literacy, from at least the lower primary level (primary 1–3).[4]
Aanecode: aka promoted to code: ak (Asante) Nyewcode: aka promoted to code: ak (Fante) Yiwcode: aka promoted to code: ak (Akuapem)
Okay/Alright
Yoocode: aka promoted to code: ak
No/Nope
Ohocode: aka promoted to code: ak/Anhãcode: aka promoted to code: ak (Fante) Daabicode: aka promoted to code: ak (Asante)
Good night
Da yiecode: aka promoted to code: ak (Asante) literally "sleep well"
I'm going to sleep
Me rekɔ dacode: aka promoted to code: ak (Fante)
How's it going?/How are you?
Ɛte sɛn?code: aka promoted to code: ak (Asante) could also be used in the non-literal sense as "hello"
Thank you
Medaasecode: aka promoted to code: ak
Please/Excuse me/I beg your pardon
Mepa wo kyɛwcode: aka promoted to code: ak
Song(s)/Music
Ndwomcode: aka promoted to code: ak (Fante) Nnwomcode: aka promoted to code: ak (Asante)
What is your name?
Wo din de sɛn?code: aka promoted to code: ak/Yɛfrɛ wo sɛn?code: aka promoted to code: ak (Asante) Wo dzin dze dεn?code: aka promoted to code: ak (Fante)
My name is.../I'm called...
Me dzin dze...code: aka promoted to code: ak/Wɔfrɛ me...code: aka promoted to code: ak (Fante)
How old is he/she?
Woedzi mfe ahen?code: aka promoted to code: ak (Fante)
How old are you?
Edzi mfe ahencode: aka promoted to code: ak (Fante)
Where is it?
Ɔwɔ hen?code: aka promoted to code: ak
I am going/I am taking my leave
Me rekɔcode: aka promoted to code: ak
Good
Mbocode: aka promoted to code: ak (Fante) Mmocode: aka promoted to code: ak (Asante)
Leave
Jocode: aka promoted to code: ak (Fante) Kɔcode: aka promoted to code: ak (Asante)
The Akan peoples use a commonAkan (Ghana) naming system of giving the first name to a child, based on the day of the week that the child was born. Almost all the tribes and clans in Ghana have a similar custom.
^abNina Pawlak, “Akan Folk Literature and the Beginning of Writing in Twi,”Literatures in African Languages: Theoretical Issues and Sample Surveys by B. W. Andrzejewski and S. Pilaszewicz, 128-157 (Cambridge University Press, 2010).
^J G Christaller,Twi mmebuse̲m, mpensã-ahansĩa mmoaano. A collection of three thousand and six hundred Tshi proverbs, in use among the Negroes of the Gold Coast speaking the Asante and Fante language, collected, together with their variations, and alphabetically arranged, The Basel German Evangelical Missionary Society, 1879.
Dolphyne, F. A. (1988). "The Volta–Comoé Languages". In Kropp Dakubu, Mary Esther (ed.).The Languages of Ghana. London: Kegan Paul International for the International African Institute.ISBN978-0710302106.
Dolphyne, Florence Abena (1988).The Akan (Twi-Fante) Language: Its Sound Systems and Tonal Structure. Accra: Ghana Universities Press.ISBN9964-3-0159-6.
Dolphyne, F. A. (1996).A Comprehensive Course in Twi (Asante) for the Non-Twi Learner. Accra: Ghana University Press.ISBN9964-3-0245-2.
Nketia, William (2004).Twi für Ghana: Wort für Wort (in German). Bielefeld: Reise Know-How Verlag.ISBN3-89416-346-1.
Obeng, Samuel Gyasi (2001).African anthroponymy: An ethnopragmatic and norphophonological study of personal names in Akan and some African societies. LINCOM studies in anthropology. Vol. 08. München: LINCOM Europa.ISBN3-89586-431-5.
Redden, J. E.; Owusu, N. (1963).Twi Basic Course. Foreign Service Institute basic course series. Foreign Service Institute.hdl:2027/mdp.39015005280261. Reprint:Twi basic course. Hippocrene. 1995.ISBN0-7818-0394-2.
