Theturkey is a largebird in thegenusMeleagris, native to North America. There are two extant turkey species: thewild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) of eastern and central North America and theocellated turkey (Meleagris ocellata) of theYucatán Peninsula in Mexico. Males of both turkey species have a distinctive fleshywattle, called a snood, that hangs from the top of the beak. They are among the largest birds in their ranges. As with many large ground-feeding birds (orderGalliformes), the male is bigger and much more colorful than the female.
The earliest turkeys evolved in North America over 20 million years ago. They share a recent common ancestor with grouse, pheasants, and other fowl. The wild turkey species is the ancestor of thedomestic turkey, which was domesticated approximately 2,000 years ago by indigenous peoples. It was this domesticated turkey that later reachedEurasia, during theColumbian exchange.
The forests of North America, from Mexico (where they were first domesticated inMesoamerica)[7] throughout the midwestern and eastern United States and into southeastern Canada
The linguistMario Pei proposes two possible explanations for the nameturkey.[10] One theory suggests that when Europeans first encountered turkeys in the Americas, they incorrectly identified the birds as a type ofguineafowl, which were already being imported into Europe byEnglish merchants to the Levant viaConstantinople. The birds were therefore nicknamedturkey coqs. The name of the North American bird may have then becometurkey fowl orIndian turkeys, which was eventually shortened toturkeys.[10][11][12]
A second theory arises from turkeys coming to England not directly from the Americas, but via merchant ships from the Middle East, where they weredomesticated successfully. Again the importers lent the name to the bird; hence turkey-cocks andturkey-hens, and soon thereafter,turkeys.[10][13]
In 1550, the English navigatorWilliam Strickland, who had introduced the turkey into England, was granted a coat of arms including a "turkey-cock in his pride proper".[14]William Shakespeare used the term inTwelfth Night,[15] believed to be written in 1601 or 1602. The lack of context around his usage suggests that the term was already widespread.[citation needed]
Other European names for turkeys incorporate an assumed Indian origin, such asdinde ('from India') inFrench,индюшка (indyushka, 'bird of India') inRussian,indyk inPolish andUkrainian, andhindi ('Indian') inTurkish. These are thought to arise from the supposed belief ofChristopher Columbus that he had reached India rather than the Americas on his voyage.[10] In Portuguese a turkey is aperu; the name is thought to derive from the country in South America 'Peru'.[16]
Several other birds that are sometimes called turkeys are not particularly closely related: thebrushturkeys aremegapodes, and the bird sometimes known as theAustralian turkey is theAustralian bustard (Ardeotis australis). Theanhinga (Anhinga anhinga) is sometimes called thewater turkey, from the shape of its tail when the feathers are fully spread for drying.[citation needed]
An infant turkey is called achick orpoult.[17][18]
History
"History of turkeys" redirects here. For the country's history, seeHistory of Turkey.
Turkeys were likely first domesticated inPre-Columbian Mexico, where they held a cultural and symbolic importance.[20][21] TheClassical Nahuatl word for the turkey,huehxōlō-tl (guajolote in Spanish), is still used in modern Mexico, in addition to the general termpavo. Mayan aristocrats and priests appear to have had a special connection to ocellated turkeys, withideograms of those birds appearing in Mayan manuscripts.[22] Spanish chroniclers, includingBernal Díaz del Castillo and FatherBernardino de Sahagún, describe the multitude of food (both raw fruits and vegetables as well as prepared dishes) that were offered in the vast markets (tianguis) ofTenochtitlán, noting there weretamales made of turkeys, iguanas, chocolate, vegetables, fruits and more.[citation needed]
Turkeys were firstexported to Europe via Spain around 1519, where they gained immediate popularity among the aristocratic classes.[23] Turkeys arrived in England in 1541. From there, English settlers brought turkeys to North America during the 17th century.[20]
Destruction and re-introduction in the United States
In what is now the United States, there were an estimated 10 million turkeys in the 17th century. By the 1930s, only 30,000 remained.[24] In the 1960s and 1970s, biologists started trapping wild turkeys from the few places they remained (including the Ozarks[24] and New York[25]), and re-introducing them into other states, including Minnesota[24] and Vermont.[25] Starting in 2014, researchers sent a survey to wildlife biologists in the National Wild Turkey Federation Technical Committee across the U.S. states to gather data regarding the population of turkeys. As of 2019, the wild turkey population declined by around 3% since 2014. Also as of 2019, the number of wild turkey hunters decreased by 18% since 2014 from the reports of the participating U.S. states. The 2019 data for population was missing information from 12 states and the 2019 hunter data was missing information from 8 states.[26]
Human conflicts with wild turkeys
Turkeys have been known to be aggressive toward humans and pets in residential areas.[27] Wild turkeys have a social structure andpecking order andhabituated turkeys may respond to humans and animals as they do to other turkeys. Habituated turkeys may attempt todominate or attack people that the birds view as subordinates.[28]
In 2017, the town ofBrookline, Massachusetts, recommended a controversial approach when confronted with wild turkeys. Besides taking a step forward to intimidate the birds, officials also suggested "making noise (clanging pots or other objects together); popping open an umbrella; shouting and waving your arms; squirting them with a hose; allowing your leashed dog to bark at them; and forcefully fending them off with a broom".[29] This advice was quickly rescinded and replaced with a caution that "being aggressive toward wild turkeys is not recommended by State wildlife officials."[30]
Fossil record
A number of turkeys have been described fromfossils. The Meleagridinae are known from theEarly Miocene (c. 23mya) onwards, with theextinctgeneraRhegminornis (Early Miocene of Bell, U.S.) andProagriocharis (KimballLate Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lime Creek, U.S.). The former is probably abasal turkey, the other a more contemporary bird not very similar to known turkeys; both were much smaller birds. A turkey fossil not assignable to genus but similar toMeleagris is known from the Late Miocene ofWestmoreland County, Virginia.[8] In the modern genusMeleagris, a considerable number of species have been described, as turkey fossils are robust and fairly often found, and turkeys show great variation among individuals. Many of these supposed fossilized species are now consideredjunior synonyms. One, the well-documentedCalifornia turkeyMeleagris californica,[31] became extinct recently enough to have been hunted by early human settlers.[32] It has been suggested that its demise was due to the combined pressures of human hunting andclimate change at the end of thelast glacial period.[33]
Meleagris sp. (Early Pliocene ofBone Valley, U.S.)
Meleagris sp. (Late Pliocene of Macasphalt Shell Pit, U.S.)
Meleagris californica (Late Pleistocene of southwestern U.S.) – formerlyParapavo/Pavo
Meleagris crassipes (Late Pleistocene of southwestern North America)
Turkeys have been considered by many authorities to be their own family—the Meleagrididae—but a recent genomic analysis of aretrotransposon marker groups turkeys in the familyPhasianidae.[34] In 2010, a team of scientists published a draft sequence of the domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) genome.[35] In 2023 a new improved haplotype-resolved domestic turkey genome was published, which confirmed the large inversion on the Z chromosome not found in otherGalliformes, and found new structural variations between the parent haplotypes that provides potential new target genes for breeding.[36]
Anatomy
Anatomical structures on the head and throat of a domestic turkey. 1. caruncles, 2. snood, 3. wattle (dewlap), 4. major caruncle, 5. beard
In anatomical terms, asnood is an erectile, fleshy protuberance on the forehead of turkeys. Most of the time when the turkey is in a relaxed state, the snood is pale and 2–3 cm long. However, when the male begins strutting (the courtship display), the snood engorges with blood, becomes redder and elongates several centimeters, hanging well below the beak (see image).[37][38]
Snoods are just one of thecaruncles (small, fleshy excrescences) that can be found on turkeys.[39]
While fighting, commercial turkeys often peck and pull at the snood, causing damage and bleeding.[40] This often leads to further injurious pecking by other turkeys and sometimes results incannibalism. To prevent this, some farmers cut off the snood when the chick is young, a process known as "de-snooding".[41]
The snood can be between 3 and 15 centimetres (1 and 6 in) in length depending on the turkey's sex, health, and mood.[42]
Function
The snood functions in both intersexual and intrasexualselection. Captive female wild turkeys prefer to mate with long-snooded males, and duringdyadic interactions, male turkeys defer to males with relatively longer snoods. These results were demonstrated using both live males and controlled artificial models of males. Data on the parasite burdens of free-living wild turkeys revealed a negative correlation between snood length andinfection with intestinalcoccidia, deleterious protozoan parasites. This indicates that in the wild, the long-snooded males preferred by females and avoided by males seemed to be resistant to coccidial infection.[43][44] Scientists also conducted a study on 500 male turkeys, gathering data on their snood lengths and blood samples forimmune system functionality. They discovered a similar negative correlation. The presence of morered blood cells when the snood is not removed will help to fight off unwanted invaders in their immune system, explaining this trend.[45]
Wild turkeys feed on variouswildlife, depending on the season. In the warmer months of spring and summer, their diet consists mainly ofgrains such as wheat, corn, and of smaller animals such as grasshoppers, spiders, worms, and lizards. In the colder months of fall and winter, wild turkeys consume smaller fruits and nuts such as grapes, blueberries, acorns, and walnuts. To find this food, they have to continuously forage and feed most during the sunrise and sunset hours.
Domesticated turkeys consume a commercially produced feed formulated to increase the size of the turkeys. To supplement their nutrition, farmers will also feed them grains wild turkeys eat such as corn.[46]
Grooming
Turkeys participate in a number of grooming behaviors including: dusting, sunning, and featherpreening. In dusting, turkeys get low on their stomach or side and flap their wings, coating themselves with dirt. This action serves to remove debris build-up on the feathers and also clog tiny pores that parasites such as lice can inhabit. Sunning for turkeys involves bathing in the sunlight, for their top and bottom halves. This can serve to liquidate the oil that turkeys naturally produce, spreading over their feathers and dry their feathers from precipitation at the same time. In feather preening, turkeys are able to remove dirt and bacteria, while also ensuring that non-durable feathers are removed.[47]
Flight
Though domestic turkeys are considered flightless, wild turkeys can and do fly for short distances. Turkeys are best adapted for walking and foraging; they do not fly as a normal means of travel. When faced with a perceived danger, wild turkeys can fly up to a quarter mile. Turkeys may also make short flights to assist roosting in a tree.[48]
The speciesMeleagris gallopavo is eaten by humans. They were first domesticated by the indigenous people ofMexico from at least 800 BC onwards.[49] By 200 BC, the indigenous people of what is today theAmerican Southwest had domesticated turkeys; though the theory that they were introduced from Mexico was once influential, modern studies suggest that the turkeys of the Southwest were domesticated independently from those in Mexico. Turkeys were used both as a food source and for their feathers and bones, which were used in both practical and cultural contexts.[50] Compared to wild turkeys, domestic turkeys are selectively bred to grow larger in size for their meat.[51][52]
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