| Tiantai | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Chinese | 天台 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hanyu Pinyin | PRC Standard Mandarin: Tiāntāi ROC Standard Mandarin: Tiāntái | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | from "Tiantai [Heavenly Terrace] Mountain" | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Vietnamese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Vietnamese alphabet | Thiên Thai | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Chữ Hán | 天台 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Korean name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hangul | 천태 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hanja | 天台 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Japanese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Kanji | 天台 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Tiantai orT'ien-t'ai (Chinese:天台;pinyin:PRC Standard Mandarin:Tiāntāi) is anEast Asian Buddhist school ofMahāyāna Buddhism that developed in6th-century China.[1] Tiantai Buddhism emphasizes the "One Vehicle" (Ekayāna) doctrine derived from theLotus Sūtra as well as the philosophy of patriarchZhiyi (538–597 CE).[2][3] Brook Ziporyn, professor of ancient and medievalChinese religion andphilosophy, states that Tiantai Buddhism is "the earliest attempt at a thoroughgoingSinitic reworking of theIndian Buddhist tradition."[4] According to Paul Swanson, scholar ofBuddhist studies, Tiantai Buddhism grew to become "one of the most influential Buddhist traditions in China and Japan."[5]
Tiantai is sometimes also called "The Dharma Flower School" (天台法華宗), after its focus on theLotus Sūtra, whose Chinese title translates toSubtle Dharma Lotus Flower Sutra.[6] During theSui dynasty (581–618), the Tiantai school became one of the leading schools ofChinese Buddhism, with numerous large temples supported by emperors and wealthy patrons. The school's influence waned and was revived again in theTang by figures likeZhanran, expericing a second revival period during theSong dynasty. Chinese Tiantai remains a living tradition to this day, being particularly strong inHong Kong andZhejiang Province.
The JapaneseTendai school is also an influential tradition which branched off from Tiantai during the 9th century, and played a major role in the development ofJapanese Buddhism. AKorean offshoot, theCheontae school, was also established during the 12th century. Furthermore, Tiantai (and its offshoots) were very influential in the development of other forms ofEast Asian Buddhism, such asChan andPure Land.[7]
Unlike earlier schools ofChinese Buddhism, the Tiantai school was entirely of Chinese origin.[8] The schools of Buddhism that had existed in China prior to the emergence of the Tiantai are generally believed to represent direct transplantations fromIndia, with little modification to their basic doctrines and methods. However, Tiantai flourished as a native Chinese Buddhist school under the 4th patriarch,Zhiyi, who developed an original and extensive Chinese Buddhist system of doctrine and practice. After Zhiyi, the most influential figures in the Chinese tradition wereZhanran (in theTang) andZhili (in theSong), both of whom expanded on Zhiyi's teachings and defended the orthodox tradition.
Zhiyi's Tiantai school grew into a broad tradition which was able to absorb new influences and develop new creative methods over time.[8] The tradition emphasized both scriptural study and meditative practice, and taught an inclusive array of Buddhist practices, fromsamatha-vipasyana meditation, to repentance rites andPure Land practice.[9]
The Indian Buddhist philosopherNāgārjuna is traditionally taken to be the first patriarch of the Tiantai school.Madhyamaka works associated withNāgārjuna like theChung lun (Madhyamakaśāstra;Taishō 1564) and theDà zhìdù lùn (T. no. 1509) are important sources for the Tiantai school.[10][11]
The sixth centurydhyāna masterHuiwen (Chinese:慧文) is traditionally considered to be the second patriarch of the Tiantai school. Through studying and meditating on the works of Nāgārjuna, Huiwen is considered by the Tiantai tradition to have awakened to the profound meaning of Nāgārjuna'steaching on the middle way.[10]
Huiwen later transmitted his teachings toChan masterNanyue Huisi (Chinese:南嶽慧思, 515-577), who is traditionally figured as the third patriarch. During meditation, he is said to have realized the "LotusSamādhi", indicating enlightenment andBuddhahood. He authored theTa Ch'eng Chih Kuan (Mahāyāna-śamatha-vipaśyanā).[12]
Huisi then transmitted his teachings toZhiyi (Chinese:智顗, 538-597), traditionally figured as the fourth patriarch of Tiantai, who is said to have practiced the Lotus Samādhi and to have become enlightened to the meaning of theLotus Sutra. The above lineage was proposed by Buddhists of later times and do not reflect the popularity of the monks at that time.[13]
Scholars such as Paul L. Swanson considerZhiyi (Chinese: 智顗, 538–597 CE) to have been the major founder of the Tiantai school as well as one of the greatest Chinese Buddhist philosophers. He was the first to systematize and popularize the complex synthesis of Tiantai doctrine as an original Chinese tradition.[3] Zhiyi and his direct students authored numerous exegetical works, and treatises that explain the foundational cultivation methods of the Tiantai tradition (such as the Four Samadhis and the Lotus Repentance Rite).[12]
Zhiyi analyzed and organized all Buddhist teachings into a comprehensive system of study and practice. He used theLotus Sutra and its teaching on theOne Vehicle andskillful means as the foundation for this system. Zhiyi's classification system culminates with theLotus Sutra (andNirvana Sutra), which he saw as the most complete teachings. His other innovations include a unique doctrine of a threefold truth (as opposed to the "two truths") along with a new system of Buddhist meditation and cultivation (found in hisMohe Zhiguan).[14] Zhiyi's legacy also owes much to his discipleGuanding, who compiled the masters' "three main works" after Zhiyi's death.[15]
Zhiyi spent much time onTiantai Mountain (inZhejiang province), which became a major center for the tradition.[16][17] "Tiantai" in modern simplified Chinese means "celestial platform";[1] however, according to traditional Chinese sources such asZhanran, the wordtai refers to three stars in a constellation (calledSantai, "Three Tiers") which is located just below theBig Dipper.[18] Two other key centers of the early tradition were Yu-Ch'uan monastery inHubei (founded by Zhiyi himself), which was the site where Zhiyi preached theMohe Zhiguan and theProfound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra, and theChang'an region, includingMount Wutai.[19]
Zhiyi and the other Tiantai masters of the Sui dynasty era who succeeded him also wrote numerous works on other sutras such as theNirvana,Vimalakirti, and thePure Land sutras. Zhiyi's Tiantai doctrine provided a flexible system for the tradition which could be adapted to various Buddhist practices and teachings.[20] Zhiyi's Tiantai school received much imperial support during theSui dynasty, because of this, it was the largest Buddhist school at the beginning of the Tang and thus suffered because of its close relationship with the house of Sui.[21]
After the generations of Zhiyi and his discipleGuanding, Tiantai was eclipsed for a time by newer schools such as theEast Asian Yogācāra, andHuayan schools, until the 6th patriarch JingxiZhanran (711–782) revived the school and defended its doctrine against these rival schools.[22]
During theTang Dynasty (618-907), a key Tiantai figure wasJingxi Zhanran (711-782), a great teacher and exegete who wrote three important commentaries on Zhiyi's three major works and instructed many influential monks. His writings defended the Tiantai tradition's unity of study and practice against various rival factions.[23] TheTang era debates between theFaxiang school and the Tiantai school concerning the notion of universalBuddhahood were particularly heated, with the Faxiang school asserting that different beings had different natures and therefore would reach different states of enlightenment, while the Tiantai school argued in favor of the Lotus Sutra teaching of Buddhahood for all beings.[8]
Zhanran's view of Buddha nature was expanded in hisJingangpi (Diamond Scalpel), which is the key source for the doctrine of "the Buddha-nature of Insentient Beings." This influential doctrine held that since buddha-nature was all-pervasive, even insentient objects like mountains, sounds and smells have buddha-nature.[24] Thus, according to Zhanran, "every blade of grass, tree, pebble, and particle of dust is perfectly endowed with buddha nature".[25] Zhanran also emphasized the importance of scripture (especially theMohe Zhiguan), seeing it as having the power to transmit the Tiantai lineage, in contrast to Chan influenced views which saw lineage as transmitted "mind to mind", outside the scriptures.[26]
The Tang era was also a period of increasingsyncretism within the Tiantai tradition. One example of this tendency is the synthesis of Tiantai teaching and Chinese esoteric Buddhism taught byYi Xing (682-727) and his followers.[20] Tiantai monks also became key figures in ChinesePure Land Buddhism during the Tang. Some of these key Pure Land figures affiliated with Tiantai include Chengyuan (712-802) andFazhao (fl. 766).[27] Tiantai authors also wrote at least five different Pure Land works during the Tang which were attributed toZhiyi, including theGuan-jing-shu (a commentary to theContemplation Sutra) and theJingtu shiyilun (Discourse on Ten Doubts about Pure Land, T.1961).[28]
Ziporyn writes that during the late Tang, Tiantai entered a time of crisis, "an age marked internally by the deterioration of distinctive Tiantai ideas and marked externally by the loss of crucial texts and monastic institutions, especially afterthe persecution of 845 (a period that saw the increased influence of Chan)."[29]
During this latter Tang period,Huayan andChan influences became increasingly prominent in some Tiantai lineages. Zhanran's disciple and seventh patriarchDaosui (796–805), and other figures such as Zhiyuan (768–844) and Daochang Ningfen are seen as exhibiting some of these influences.[30] Daosui is important because he was the primary teacher ofSaichō, the founder of the Japanese Tiantai tradition (known in Japanese asTendai). Other Tiantai syncretists include Deshao (881–972) who was associated with theFayan branch of Chan. His studentYongming Yanshou (954–974) attempted to unify Tiantai, Huayen and Yogacara teachings under a kind ofidealism influenced byZongmi, emphasizing what he called the "one pure formless mind".[31]
Zhanran is a towering figure for the later Tiantai tradition. His commentaries were one of the few Tang sources that survive into theSong dynasty, where they would become the orthodox exegetical works for the Tiantai tradition as it attempted to rebuild after the chaos of the late Tang.[32] However, Zhanran's influence during the Tang should not be overstated. Donner and Stevenson note that Tiantai was a diverse tradition from its very beginnings, with numerous traditions and lineages in different regions absorbing different influences (Chan, Huayan, the Pure Land ofShandao and theTang esoterica ofAmoghavajra). They write "such diversity suggests that we should speak in the plural when we speak of eighth-century Tiantai "tradition", with Zhanran's particular camp constituting but one among a number of semiautonomous lines."[33]
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TheSong Dynasty (960-1279) saw efforts to revive the Tiantai school after the damages suffered during theGreat Anti-Buddhist Persecution and the subsequentHuang Chao rebellion by importing many lost Tiantai works from abroad and reintegrating them into the weakened Chinese tradition.[34]
By the time of the early Song dynasty, the increasing syncretism within the Tiantai tradition culminated in a famous debate known as the "home mountain" (shanjia) vs. "off mountain" (shanwai) debate. "Off mountain" supporters, as they were later polemically termed, supported the importation of Huayan-Chan doctrines (such as the "one pure mind") into Tiantai, claiming they were originally Tiantai doctrines which were fully compatible with Zhiyi's teaching. "Home mountain" supporters saw the original Tiantai view as different and superior to this new view influenced by Huayan and Chan, especially the works ofZongmi.[35]
The Song era revival began inZhejiang province, which became a major Tiantai center thanks to the Korean monk Yitong (Korean: Uitong, 佑忂, 927-988), who took up residence in Ningbo after having studied with master Xiji (919-987) at Mt. Tiantai. His two main disciples, Zhili and Zunshi, were responsible for the revival.[36] The most eminent figure during this period was PatriarchSiming Zhili (960–1028), who wrote various commentaries on Zhiyi's works and defended the so called "Home mountain" view. Zhili's major criticisms included attacking Chan's failure to understand the necessity of the use of words and scriptural study as part of practice as well as criticizing Zongmi's view of a pure mind as the buddha-nature, arguing instead that the "three truths" as taught by Zhiyi are the ultimate reality. For Zhili, mind or consciousness has no special status relative to other types of phenomena, such as physical matter, and thus, all dharmas are metaphysically equal.[37]
Over time, Zhili's "Home mountain" view turned out to be the most influential, and his works became part of the orthodox Tiantai canon during theSong dynasty.[38] Ciyun Zunshi (964–1032) was another important figure in this second Tiantai revival. His work focused on the promotion of rituals for lay Buddhists and worked on converting the populace away from using blood, meat and alcohol for funerary and ancestral rites. Ciyi also promoted the practice of adopting local Chinese deities and spirits into the Buddhist religion as "vassals" or "retainers" and strongly promoted repentance rituals.[39] Another key Tiantai figure of the Song wasChegwan (?–971), a Korean monk who wrote an important introduction to Tiantai thought,A Guide to the Tiantai Fourfold Teachings.[40] Due to the efforts of these Song era Tiantai figures, the school became one of the dominant forms of Buddhism during the Song, alongside of Chan.[41]
Zhili and Zunshi, along with Shengchang (959–1020), were also associated with the popularization ofPure Land practices, rituals and the foundation of lay Pure Land societies (called lotus societies,lianshe).[42] Indeed, according to Getz, the Song era Tiantai revival was closely associated with the growth of Tiantai Lotus Societies focusing on Pure Land practice.[42] Another important Tiantai Pure Land author wasZongxiao (1151–1214), author of theLebang Wenlei, a Pure Land anthology.[43] Many of these Tiantai figures also wrote Pure Land treatises and commentaries.[44] The new Tiantai Pure Land societies influenced the creation of many similar societies by other later figures. They also became models for similar societies formed by monks of the Vinaya school, likeYuanzhao.[42] The Tiantai monkMao Ziyuan (1096?-1166) took the idea one step further by establishing what became known as the "White Lotus Society" which allowed both men and women to attend together and even to preach and be in charge of society repentance halls as married clergy.[45]
Tiantai's relationship with the new Pure Land societies was marked by both influence and tension. The proliferation of independent Pure Land societies, particularly lay-led groups like the White Lotus, challenged the school's authority and prompted a reassessment of their relationship with Pure Land practice. Two significant factors contributed to this reassessment: the emergence of non-Tiantai Pure Land groups and internal debates about Pure Land doctrine and practice. This tension can be seen in Zongxiao'sLebang Wenlei, which outlines a Pure Land lineage outside of Tiantai Buddhism. This acknowledged the growing independence of Pure Land societies, which were increasingly seen as valid religious communities of their own. However, this monastic-led patriarchate was also a strategic effort to maintain monastic influence over lay-led movements that threatened the authority of the traditional establishment.[42]
Doctrinal disagreements within Tiantai circles further complicated the relationship with Pure Land. Figures like Zhili sought to integrate Pure Land teachings with Tiantai meditation practices, emphasizing contemplation of the mind rather than invoking Amitabha or visualizing the Pure Land. While some, such as Tao-yin and Tao-ch'en, defended this approach, others like Yu-yen and Tse-ying rejected it, favoring traditional Pure Land practices centered on invocation and visualization.[42] Zongxiao'sLebang Wenlei reflects the ongoing uncertainty and diversity of view regarding Pure Land's relationship to Tiantai. Rather than synthesizing these conflicting approaches, he presented diverse viewpoints side by side, acknowledging Pure Land's evolving distinct identity. Zhipan later reinforced this view in hisComprehensive History of the Buddhas and Patriarchs, where he treated Pure Land as a separate tradition rather than fully integrating it into Tiantai orthodoxy.[42]
The defeat of the Song dynasty was a serious blow to Tiantai which suffered another setback during theYuan dynasty, which supported Tibetan Buddhism. Furthermore, during the Yuan,Chan Buddhism continued to grow in popularity, while attacking the legitimacy of other schools.[46] This period saw the Tiantai figure Huxi Huaize (虎谿懷則, fl. 1310) write his polemical treatiseRecord of Tiantai's Transmission of the Buddha's Mind-seal as an effort to defend the Tiantai tradition against Chan critiques.[47]
TheMing Dynasty (1368–1644) saw further religious revivals among the major Chinese Buddhist schools, including Tiantai, particularly under the reign of the Buddhist friendlyWanli Emperor.[48] The key figures of the Ming Tiantai Buddhist revival were Baisong Zhenjue (百松真觉, 1538-1589) andYouxi Chuandeng (幽溪传灯, 1554-1628). Both were Chan monks who converted to Tiantai and attempted to revive the tradition. These figures wrote new works, lectured widely, and publishedgazetteers. They also commented on theŚūraṅgama Sūtra, the most popular sutra of the time, from a Tiantai perspective. Their whose students revived ancestral Tiantai monasteries such as Gaoming and Ayuwang.[49][50] Chuandeng wrote a work entitledOn Nature Including Good and Evil which presents his ideas on doctrinal classification, the principle of nature-inclusion, and the practice of the Dharma-gate of inherent evil, attempting to harmonize these withConfucianism and the thought of theŚūraṃgama Sūtra.[51]
Another important figure of the late Ming Dynasty wasOuyi Zhixu (1599–1655), one of the Four Eminent Monks of the Wanli Era. Ouyi wrote numerous works that draw heavily on Tiantai thought, and became known as the leading proponent of Tiantai and Pure Land Buddhism during this period.[52]
Tianxi Shoudeng (1607–1675) was one of the most influential teachers and exegetes of Tiantai during theQing Dynasty.[53]
Dixian was the most influential figure in modern Tiantai, who carried the Tiantai lineage (specifically the Lingfeng lineage) from the lateQing into the 20th century.[54] His student, the monkTanxu (1875 – 1963), is known for having rebuilt various temples during theRepublican era (such asZhanshan temple inQingdao) and for preserving the Tiantai lineage into thePRC era.[55] During the Chinese Civil War, various dharma heirs of Dixian moved toHong Kong, including Tanxu and Baojing. They helped establish the Tiantai tradition in Hong Kong, where it remains a strong living tradition today, being preserved by their dharma heirs.[56]
Baojing's dharma heir, Jueguang, helped establish the Guanzong Temple in Hong Kong and transmitted the lineage to numerous monks from Korea, Indonesia, Singapore, Taiwan and mainland China.[57] Tanxuan's heir, Yongxing, founded Xifang Temple in Hong Kong, as well as various temples in Malaysia and the United States (as well as the Texas Buddhist association and itsJade Buddha Temple).[58] Furthermore, other monks from this lineage have helped to reintroduce the Tiantai tradition from Hong Kong back to the rest of mainland China, aiding in the reconstruction of Chinese Buddhism after thereform and opening up period.[59]
During the modern era, Tiantai thought was also influential on some modernChinese philosophers, likeMou Zongsan (1909 –1995).[60]
The ancientGuoqing Temple at mount Tiantai, which had suffered from neglect and destruction, was renovated at the behest ofZhou Enlai. Guoqing Temple is now a major center of Chinese Tiantai Buddhism as well as remains a place of pilgrimage for JapaneseTendai Buddhists.[61]
The Tiantai school takes theThreefoldLotus Sūtra as the main scriptural authority (pratiśaraṇa). The supporting scriptures or retinue are considered to be theDa zhi du lun (the guide), theMahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra (the support), thePañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (for methods of contemplation) and theBook of the Original Acts that Adorn the Bodhisattva (Pusa yingluo benye jing T. 24, No. 1485).[62][63] Tiantai is often termed the "Four Sutras, One Treatise School" (四経一論) because of the strong influence of these texts on the tradition.[64]
Apart from these, there other Mahayana sutras that are especially important in Tiantai. TheAvataṃsaka Sūtra is also very highly regarded in Tiantai (and is widely quoted by Zhiyi) and it is seen as one of the subtlest sutras and to belong to the class of "complete" teachings.[65] TheVimalakīrti Sūtra is also seen as an important sutra, and Zhiyi is known to have written two commentaries on this sutra.[66] Other key sutras include theGolden Light Sutra (on which Zhiyi wrote commentaries), the threePure Land sutras (central for Tiantai Pure Land), and theBrahma's Net Sutra (from which the tradition derives its bodhisattva precepts).[63][67]
Indeed, the Tiantai school's study makes use of numerous sources. As noted by Donner and Stevenson: "when we examine the early [Tiantai] exegetical and textual record, we find that [Zhiyi] and his successors compiled treatises...for any number of sūtras other than the Lotus", noting that there was no real tendency to prefer any other single sutra.[67]
In addition to its doctrinal basis in Indian Buddhist texts, the Tiantai school's doctrinal study relies on numerous Chinese treatises written by the ancestors of the school (especially important are those ofZhiyi,Zhanran andZhili). The three major Tiantai treatises studied in the tradition are the following works of Zhiyi:[68][63]
There is also another set known as the Five Lesser Tiantai Treatises:[68][63]
Two other important treatises are Zhanran'sAdamantine Scalpel (a work on Buddha-nature) and theContemplation of Mind Treatise (Guanxinlun) by Zhiyi.[63]
David Chappell lists the most important Tiantai teachings as being The Threefold Truth and the corresponding Threefold Contemplation, The Fourfold Teachings, The Subtle Dharma, and The Non-conceivable Discernment (or the "Inconceivable Mind").[70] Brook Ziporyn writes that Tiantai's "rigorous theoretical edifice" uses "modes of argumentation and praxis that are derived squarely fromIndian Buddhism" but applies these "in the service of ideals and metaphysical conclusions that are rooted deeply in theindigenous philosophical traditions."[71]
The Tiantai school's main philosophical principle is The Threefold Truth (emptiness, existence, and the middle; 空假中kong, jia, zhong). According to Paul Swanson, this is the "central insight" around which the Tiantai system revolves.[72] This view was developed by Zhiyi's reading of Nāgārjuna'sMadhyamaka philosophy, especially itsdoctrine of two truths. The Threefold Truth comprises the following:[73][74][9]
While the threefold truth can be explained conceptually in this way, for Zhiyi, the highest and most subtle meaning of the threefold truth is ultimately indescribably and beyond words.[78] It is also fully integrated and inclusive of all theBuddhadharma and of all mundane and ultimate truths as well.[79] According to Zhiyi, "the supreme truth of the middle path" is "the reality ofnon-duality", as well as "the enlightened perception of all Buddhas and bodhisattvas." Zhiyi also states that it is also called "the truth of one reality", as well as "emptiness" (空kong), "Buddha-nature" (佛性fóxìng),Thusness (Skt.tathātā, 如如 ruru),tathāgatagarbha (如来藏 rulaizang), and theDharmadhatu (法界 fajie).[80]
The Threefold Truth may be contemplated independently as the "three contemplations", an important theme in Zhiyi'sMo ho chi kuan. The threefold contemplation, also described as the threefold cessation and insight, consists of what Zhiyi calls a "graded contemplation":[81]
There are different levels of subtlety of this threefold contemplation, the deepest of which is when all three aspects are contemplated as a simultaneously non-dual unity which according to Zhiyi is when all three aspects are "present in one thought" (一心) which is "beyond conceptual understanding".[82] According to Chappell:[83]
The first contemplation involves moving from the world of provisionality to seeing its emptiness, which is a different process from the second contemplation in which we move beyond emptiness and back into an acceptance of the role of provisional existence. Only in the third contemplation do we find the balance involving the previous two insights based on the Middle Path of the One Mind.
Since the three truths are one, and this truth is a single unity, Tiantai thinkers see the whole of reality is as being a single interpenetrating whole, one integrated existence. Thisholism is described in different ways, such as "the interinclusiveness of the ten realms" or "the interpenetrating unity of all aspects of reality".[84] According to Swanson, in this view, "everything contains everything else, and the whole contains all things".[84] Zhiyi illustrates this idea with the simile of the drunk man from theMahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, who perceives the sun as spinning around due to his condition, but in reality there is just one sun and this is confirmed by sober people.[85] However, Zhiyi also points out that even this idea of "one truth" is just a concept, and as such it is ultimately inadequate, since "each and every truth is inexpressible" and "the one truth actually no truth".[85]
According to Brook Ziporyn, the Tiantai school's holism is derived from an extremely important passage from theLotus Sutra which states:
Only a Buddha together with a Buddha knows the ultimate reality of all things: how they appear, what their natures are, what they're made of, what they are capable of, what they are doing, what their causes are, what their conditions are, what their effects are, what their consequences are, and the way in which all these factors from beginning to end are equally ultimate and are ultimately one and the same.[86]
Ziporyn argues that this passage points at the idea "that each particular aspect of the world as we see it and feel it is ultimately real, that each one is in fact the Absolute itself, the Buddha-nature, the final fact about the universe" and that "each thing, each appearance, each action" is "the ultimate reality "of " all other things".[86]
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One of the ways this holistic doctrine is explained is the idea of "Three Thousand Realms in a Single Thought Moment" or "The Presence of All Three Thousand Aspects of Existence as Each Moment of Experience" (一念三千). According to this teaching, the various realms of existence of Buddhist cosmology are all interconnected and interpenetrating.[87] Each of these realms can manifest within an individual's mind, meaning that states of existence are not only external places of rebirth but also modes of experience and perception. Zhiyi explained that each thought contains the ten dharma realms, and since each realm includes all others, this results in one hundred dharma realms. Each of these realms further contains thirty worlds, culminating in a total of three thousand worlds within each thought moment.[88]
This concept emphasizes the interpenetrating nature of reality, where each thought encompasses all phenomena. Jacqueline Stone notes that this reflects a mutually inclusive relationship between every ordinary thought and the entirety of existence. The number three thousand arises from multiplying key Buddhist categories: the ten realms of beings, their mutual inclusion, the ten suchnesses, and the three realms. This doctrine presents a holsitic view of reality where distinctions such as Buddha and ordinary being, subject and object, or sentient and non-sentient are seen as unified and interdependent within each moment of thought.[89]
Despite this unified view, Zhiyi used various frameworks to describe reality, such as the two truths, the threefold truth, and the ten realms. He also employed the Three Subtle Dharmas (sentient beings, Buddha, and mind) and the Ten Suchnesses to explain this interconnected nature. Zhiyi taught that by observing one's mind and thoughts, one can perceive the entirety of reality and achieve Buddhahood. Drawing from the Avatamsaka Sutra, he emphasized that contemplating the mind allows one to realize the Buddha's dharma fully. He referred to this integrated reality as "the inconceivable mind" (不思議心), which embodies the three thousand dharmas and the threefold truth.[90][91]
The Tiantai school'ssoteriology is based on the doctrine of the "One Vehicle" (Skt.ekayāna,traditional Chinese: 一乘;pinyin:Yīchéng) found in theLotus Sutra. Tiantai sees all the various Buddhist teachings, scriptures and practices as being part of a single holistic vehicle (yana) leading toBuddhahood.[73] The discrepancies and seeming contradictions in all the different teachings of the sutras are only due to the fact that these various teachings are all "expedient means" (upāya) that are taught according to the different needs and capacities of sentient beings.[73] According to Zhiyi, even though there numerous sutras with many varied teachings, the intent of the Buddha is to lead all sentient beings to Buddhahood.[92] Similarly, just as there are different practices, there are different ways to describe the same unified reality (i.e. emptiness and the threefold truth). Thus, Zhiyi states in theFa hua hsuan i "various terms name one ultimate reality. Only one ultimate reality is given many names."[93] This ultimate reality is "one yet many, many yet one". It is many because there are diverse phenomena that arise and perish dependent on causes and conditions and it is one because all of this is equally empty.[93]
Indeed, Zhiyi outlines four types of oneness: the oneness of the teachings (all teachings of the Buddha are non-contradictory and have one intent), the oneness of the practices (all lead to Buddhahood), the oneness of persons (all will attain Buddhahood), and the oneness of reality. According to Zhiyi, any text which is consistent with these concept teaches "the Subtle Dharma" (miao-fa).[94]
This doctrine provided a unifying and inclusive framework which could be used to understand all Buddhist teachings. According toJacqueline Stone, Zhiyi's view of the One Vehicle of the Lotus Sutra is that conventionally, it is "subtle" and "wonderful" in comparison with lesser teachings which are coarse. However this is only true in a relative sense.[95] Ultimately, the Lotus Sutra's Subtle Dharma is "not established in comparison to anything else, for there is nothing outside it to which it might be compared". From this absolute perspective, the Lotus Sutra's One Vehicle is "open and integrated" according to Zhiyi, and includes all other Buddhist teachings and skillful means. From the ultimate point of view, all distinctions of "true" and "provisional" are dissolved since all teachings are expressions of the One Vehicle.[95] According to Stone, "this is an egalitarian, inclusive reading, in which all teachings in effect become "true". But from the relative standpoint, a clear distinction is preserved between the "true" and the "provisional"; this is a hierarchical, potentially even exclusive reading, which emphasizes the superiority of the Lotus Sutra over other teachings."[95]
Zhiyi's teaching onBuddhahood, as presented inThe Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra, emphasizes the integration of Buddhahood with all aspects of reality. He describes three ways of understanding the causes for Buddhahood: (1) each of the ten dharma realms contains the other nine, meaning all beings possess the potential for Buddhahood; (2) the nine non-Buddha realms are inherently linked to Buddhahood; and (3) all realms are empty of inherent existence and aligned with the threefold truth. As for the result, Buddhahood is pervasive throughout the universe, was attained by the Buddha in the distant past (as described in theLotus Sutra), and manifests in countless forms to aid sentient beings. Consequently, Zhiyi asserts that Buddhahood is not separate from ordinary existence but is fully integrated with it, with the mind, Buddhas, and sentient beings being fundamentally interconnected.[96]
Zhiyi's interpretation ofBuddha-nature is structured around three interconnected aspects: Buddha-nature as the conditional cause of Buddhahood, the complete cause, and the direct cause. The conditional cause refers to the inherent potential in sentient beings to practice the Dharma and cultivate conditions that lead to enlightenment. The complete cause emphasizes the intrinsic presence of wisdom in all beings, which, once uncovered, reveals the true nature of reality. Lastly, the direct cause signifies that all beings already participate in the ultimate reality of thusness.[97] Zhiyi's concept of Buddha-nature is closely linked to his theory of the threefold truth, which unites emptiness, conventional reality, and the middle way. While some scholars, such as Ng Yu-Kwan, emphasize a "Middle Way–Buddha Nature" concept in Zhiyi's thought which sees buddha-nature as a positive, dynamic and active force which is present in and non-dual with the world. Scholar scholars like Paul Swanson argue that this active view of buddha-nature is less central in Zhiyi's original texts and instead see Zhiyi's view as consistent withMadhyamaka's emphasis on emptiness.[98][99]
The later Tiantai thinkerZhanran is best known for advancing the doctrine of the Buddha-nature of insentient beings, which became central to Tiantai thought. In works such asThe Adamantine Scalpel, Zhanran argues that all phenomena, including seemingly lifeless objects like plants, stones, and sounds, possess Buddha-nature. He grounded this view in the Tiantai doctrine of universal inclusion, which teaches that all things, sentient or insentient, are interconnected and interpenetrating. For Zhanran, Buddha-nature is synonymous with Suchness, the ultimate reality that is both unchanging and responsive to conditions. Because Suchness pervades all things without exception, even insentient objects participate in this universal Buddha-nature. This view reflects the influence of Huayan Buddhism, particularlyFazang's theory of "Suchness according with conditions," which asserts that the absolute reality manifests itself in the diversity of phenomena.[100][101][102]
Both Zhiyi and Zhanran share a vision of Buddha-nature as pervasive and intrinsic to all reality, an active potential within sentient beings, rooted in their capacity for wisdom and practice. Zhanran expanded on this concept to assert that Buddha-nature is equally present in insentient things, thereby emphasizing the non-duality between beings and their environment. This theory would become the subject of much debate in the history of Tiantai Buddhism.[100][101][102]
One doctrine which came to be considered a unique hallmark of Tiantai thought is Inherent or natural evil (性惡), which is the idea that "our inherent nature includes good and evil" (xing ju shan e 性具善惡). WhileBuddha-nature is often understood as a universal true nature which is wholly good and pure, the Tiantai school distinguishes itself by proclaiming that ultimate reality, the Buddha-nature, contains not only the good but also the bad. Tiantai regards Buddha-nature as the mind-nature (xin xing 心性) of sentient beings. By emphasizing the non-duality and mutual inclusiveness of all reality, Tiantai rejects the idea of the true nature (the ultimate reality) as being a primal purity prior to all things or separate from them (a doctrine promoted by the Dilun school and some Chan masters).[103] As noted by Ziporyn, the teaching that "Buddhahood does not cut off evil" means that "our joy also includes sorrow, our sorrow also includes joy; our evil includes good, our good includes evil; our delusion includes enlightenment, our enlightenment includes delusion".[104]
The idea that the true nature includes both good and evil is mentioned in theMethod of Cessation and Contemplation in Mahāyāna (Dasheng zhiguan famen 大乘止觀法門), a 6th century work which may have influencedZhiyi, who also uses various quotes from theVimalakirti to defend this view.[105] Zhiyi critiqued the idea of a pure nature as the source of all reality found in the Dilun school and the idea that reality arises solely from defiled nature (of the Shelun school). Instead, he argued that the ultimate reality includes all the good and evil of allten realms.[106] This idea was further defended and developed by later Tiantai figures likeJingxi Zhanran who taught it as a unique element of Tiantai's doctrine of mutual inclusion.[107] Later figures likeSiming Zhili andYouxi Chuandeng further articulated and defended the doctrine of inherent evil.
The Tiantai theories of the interfusion of all realms and nature-inclusion serve as the foundation for the idea that Buddha-nature includes good and evil. Since all things are included within the true nature and all realms (even hell) interpenetrate within any one thought, the buddha-nature cannot be separate from evil (and vice versa). This idea is characterized by inherent inclusion (ben ju 本具) and the mutual inclusion of good and evil, meaning that good includes evil and evil includes good.[106] Due to the interfusion of all phenomena, Zhiyi affirmed that “one thought of ignorance is the mind of dharma-nature” (yi nian wu ming fa xing xin 念無明法性心) and “afflictions are exactly bodhi (awakening).”[108] Zhiyi writes in theProfound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra that "without evil there is no good. turning evil over is precisely the fulfillment of good.”[109] Thus, the concepts of good and evil are relative, since each depends on the other. The complete teaching is the highest kind of good, and from this supreme understanding,samsara andnirvana are fully non-dual.[110] Furthermore, Zhiyi also argues that the distinction between Buddhas and evil sentient beings is not in their nature (which is the same), but in their level of cultivation. Thus, the inherent nature shared by both also includes inherent evil, while only beings have cultivated evil. Even though Buddhas do not give rise to cultivated evil, they can appear in evil forms as skillful means.[111] All of this does not mean that Zhiyi does not promote the cultivation of good or the abandoning of evil however. Rather it means that even the most evil of beings can also become Buddhas by contemplating their own evil (thethree poisons) and developing it into good.[111]
An extension of Tiantai's doctrine of the One Vehicle is its classification of the Buddha's teachings (called apanjiao) into the "Five Periods and Eight Teachings" (五時八教) which helps explain how different teachings relate to each other.[73] The Tiantai classification system is based on Zhiyi's writings, but was significantly expanded by later figures into its mature form.[112] According to Peter Gregory, Japanese scholars like Sekiguchi Shindai have shown that the mature system was developed byZhanran and that Zhiyi never presents a single system of "Five Periods and Eight Teachings" (though he does use the "five flavors" and four teachings).[113]
The Tiantai panjiao provides a comprehensive hermeneutical and pedagogical schema which provides an interpretive framework for understanding the Buddha's teachings as recorded in the various scriptures, with the purpose of systematizing and reconciling their apparent contradictions. From the Tiantai point of view, the One Vehicle teaching of theLotus is a "Well-rounded Teaching", which means that it encircles and contains all other coarser teachings, lacking any sharp edges or divisions. Thus, the Tiantai doctrinal schema is a non-hierarchicalSiddhānta in which the highest teaching is a holistic and all encompassing one which includes all Buddhist views and practices.[73]
The Five Periods (五時) are five phases in the life ofShakyamuni Buddha in which, according to Tiantai exegetes, he delivered different teachings, aimed at different audiences with a different level of understanding. The Five Periods are:[114][115][73][116]
The Eight Teachings are a classification of different types of Buddhist teaching. They consist of the Fourfold Teaching, and the Fourfold Method:[117][114][118][119]
TheFourfold Teachings (化法四教) are called teachings because they are "that which discloses the principle and converts beings" according to Zhiyi. They are:[117][114][118][119]
TheFourfold Method (化儀四教) classifies four different ways that the Buddha uses to guide sentient beings of different capacities. The four are:[120]
Another way that Tiantai thinkers like Zhiyi classify the Buddhist teachings is through the FourSiddhāntas (principles, tenets), which are four principles that the Buddha used to teach the Dharma derived from theDa zhidu lun. According to David W. Chappell, the Four Siddhāntas are:[121]
(1) First of all, the Buddha used ordinary or mundane modes of expression, (2) then he individualized his teaching and adapted it to the capacities of his listeners, (3) he further altered it in order to respond to and diagnose the spiritual defects of his hearers, and (4) finally all his teaching was based on the perfect and highest wisdom. The first three are conditioned and finite, whereas the last is inconceivable and ineffable.
According to Chappell, the main idea of the Tiantai understanding of the Buddha's method of teaching is the "receptivity-and-response appropriate to a person's capacities", or "communication based on receptivity-and response". According to Chappell this means that "not only the form of the teaching, but also the quest for enlightenment (bodhicitta) arises during an interaction involving a response to the capacities and needs of a person."[121]
Tiantai's explanation of the path of the bodhisattva was set forth in Zhiyi's doctrines of the Six Degrees of Identity. The Six Degrees of Identity provide an important path schema for the Tiantai school. These six degrees of realization are as follows:[122][123]
Tiantai Buddhism emphasizes the integration of meditative practice, doctrinal study, and ritual observance. Central to Tiantai practice is the system of the Four Samadhis, along with numerous ritual practices. These practices aim to cultivate concentration (samadhi) and insight (vipasyana), leading to the realization of the Three Truths. Tiantai meditation techniques are closely tied to the teachings of theLotus Sutra, which is regarded as the supreme expression of the Buddha's Dharma. Other common Tiantai practices include rites for conferringbodhisattva precepts and the use of esoteric practices likedhāraṇīs andmantras.
According toCharles Luk, in China it has been traditionally held that the meditation methods of the Tiantai are the most systematic and comprehensive of all.[12] Tiantai meditation is primarily described as "zhi-guan", the union of calming or cessation (止zhǐ, from skt.śamatha) and contemplation or insight (觀guān, fromvipaśyanā).[124][125] Zhiguan (止観), also known as calming and insight (śamatha-vipaśyanā), is a comprehensive system of Buddhist meditation developed by the Chinese Tiantai master Zhiyi.[126] For Zhiyi, zhiguan is not limited to meditation alone but encompasses all Buddhist practices, integrating ethical conduct, mental stillness, and the cultivation of wisdom.
The practice ofzhiguan can be understood as comprising two interconnected yet distinct facets.Zhi may be described as a state of "cessation" or "stopping". In this stage, the chaotic and disordered thoughts typical of everyday experience are calmed, allowing the mind to rest in tranquility. This mental stillness is both a prerequisite for and a result of the second phase:Guan, which may be translated as "contemplation" or "clear seeing". This contemplative process focuses on observing the mind without discrimination and seeing all phenomena as empty. Embracing the universal truth of emptiness, the practitioner refrains from imposing hierarchies of value on what is observed. This includes rejecting any notion that oneself or any aspect of oneself is exempt from the impartial nature of transience.[127]
Zhiyi identified two modes of zhiguan practice: seated meditation and the practice of maintaining a calm and insightful mind in daily activities. He favored this comprehensive understanding of zhiguan over the term "chan" (zen), which he considered more restrictive.[128] In practical terms, Tiantai teaches three approaches to cultivating zhiguan: gradual and successive practice, variable practice tailored to individual needs, and perfect and sudden practice, which directly apprehends reality without reliance on progressive stages. Each method reflects different levels of spiritual capacity and conditions.[129]
Zhiyi's magnum opus, theMóhē Zhǐguān details Zhiyi's extensive meditation curriculum, organized into four key frameworks: the "twenty-five skillful means", the "four samādhis," the "ten objects of contemplation", and the "ten modes of contemplation". The twenty-five skillful means include preparatory practices like precept-keeping, sensory restraint, and associating with spiritual friends. The four samādhis describe different meditative approaches such as constant sitting, constant walking, alternating sitting and walking, and mindfulness during all activities. The ten objects of contemplation focus on various aspects of existence, while the ten modes provide structured ways to contemplate them, such as "contemplating mind as the inconceivable" (the central mode), arousing compassion, dismantling false views, and practicing detachment.[130][131][132][133]
Zhiyi saw the four samadhis as the main pillar of Tiantai meditation practice. These are:[134][135]
Zhiyi's highest form of zhiguan, the "perfect and sudden" method, emphasizes immediate insight into the true nature of reality. This approach directly contemplates reality as inherently unified, with no distinction between samsara and nirvana, suffering and liberation. In this state, all phenomena are seen as aspects of the Middle Way, where quiescence (cessation) and illumination (contemplation) are simultaneous and inseparable. Through this method, practitioners realize that ultimate reality is fully present in every aspect of experience, requiring no staged progression or sequential cultivation.[136]
The Tiantai school also teaches various other forms of meditation under the rubric of Zhiyi'szhi-guan teaching, such asmindfulness of breathing (Skt.ānāpānasmṛti). In hisSix Dharma Gates to the Sublime, Zhiyi outlines a meditation method based on this clasic Buddhist practice.[137]
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Since the time of Zhiyi (538-597), the Tiantai tradition developed a sophisticated set ofrepentance rituals connected to theLotus Sutra. These repentance practices (which also drew on other texts like theGolden Light Sutra) were grounded in the five-fold method of repentance, which includes acts of repentance, prayer, sympathetic joy, merit transference, andbodhisattva vows. Despite their name, Tiantai repentance rites are not just focused on purifying past misdeeds. Instead, they are multifaceted rituals with numerous aspects, including the cultivation ofrefuge, devotionalfaith,bodhicitta, virtue and meditative insight.[138]
Tiantai repentance rituals like theLotus Repentance, theInvocation of Guanyin Repentance and theGreat CompassionRepentance, include both "repentance through activity"—involvingprostrations,offerings,chanting, recitation ofmantras—and "repentance through principle", in which practitioners contemplate the emptiness of all phenomena. Zhiyi'sLotus Samadhi Rite of Repentance is the most prominent Tiantai ritual.[139] It blends the two main aspects of repentance into an extensiveritual, encouraging practitioners to purify their minds while deepening their understanding of the Dharma.[140][141] According to Daniel Stevenson, "since the end of the sixth century, the Lotus repentance, as set forth in Zhiyi's manual, has constituted one of the mainstays of practice in the Tiantai school, and its ritual forms continue to govern practice in the modern world."[139]
TheLotus Samadhi Rite of Repentance drew inspiration from two key texts: theMeditation on Samantabhadra Sutra and the "Chapter on Peaceful Practices" in theLotus Sutra. The former emphasizes repenting misdeeds connected to the six senses, while the latter highlights non-discriminatory awareness and formless repentance—a practice where the mind realizes its inherent emptiness, transcending distinctions of virtue and vice. Zhiyi maintained that both "practices of form" and "formless practice" were essential in the earlier stages of cultivation, yet both are ultimately abandoned upon achieving profound realization. In this view, repentance was not merely an act ofconfession but a process of understanding the interdependent nature of reality.[138]
Stevenson outlines the practice of the Lotus Repentance as follows:[139]
Repentance rituals in the Tiantai tradition evolved to meet the needs of Chinese society, blending Buddhist doctrine with popular beliefs about cosmic retribution and ancestral influence. The practice became central to Chinese Buddhist culture, especially in the form of public repentance ceremonies held during festivals such as theGhost Festival. These ceremonies often aimed to alleviate the suffering of deceased relatives and were seen as acts of collective merit. Prominent Tiantai figures like Zunshi expanded upon Zhiyi's work by systematizing repentance ceremonies, contributing to the development of distinct rituals such as theLotus Repentance and theGolden Light Repentance.
Pure Land Buddhist practices (especiallynianfo, the recitation of theAmitābha's name), has always been a major part of Tiantai Buddhism.Zhiyi himself is said to have practiced nianfo on his deathbed and had a vision ofGuanyin and Amitabha.[142][143] Many Tiantai figures were key in spreading Pure Land practice in China during the Tang andSong dynasties. Some of the key Pure Land figures of the Tang were affiliated with Tiantai, including Chengyuan (712-802) andFazhao (fl. 766).[144] Tiantai school authors also wrote various Pure Land texts and commentaries and at least five different Pure Land works were written in the Tang and apocryphally attributed toZhiyi, including theGuan-jing-shu (a commentary to theContemplation Sutra) and theJingtu shiyilun.[145] During theSong dynasty (960–1279), Tiantai monks such as Shengchang (Shěngcháng 省常, 959–1020), Ciyun Zunshi (Cíyún Zūnshì 慈雲尊式, 964–1032), andSiming Zhili founded Pure Land societies that included elites, monks and common laypeople.[146] These Tiantai monks also wrote Pure Land treatises and commentaries.[146] Zunshi is known for his development of Tiantai Pure Land rituals, including theRite for Repentance and Vows for Rebirth in the Pure Land (Wang- sheng ching-t'u ch'an-yuan i), which is a repentance rite for birth in the Pure Land.[147]
Another important Tiantai Pure Land author isZongxiao (1151–1214), author of theLebang Wenlei, a major Pure Land anthology.[148] TheLebang Wenlei contains many Tiantai Pure Land writings, including dharanis, treatises, stories, hymns and poems. This work shows the diversity of Tiantai Pure Land practice during the Song.[149] These various texts also indicate that, apart from nianfo recitation, Tiantai Pure Land practice also included visualization meditations based on theContemplation Sutra, memorization of Pure Land verses (gathas), as well as various rituals.[150]
Perhaps the most influential later Tiantai Pure Land author is PatriachOuyi Zhixu (1599–1655), author of theEssential Explanations of theAmitābha-sūtra (Emituojing yaojie).[151] Ouyi Zhixu's approach to Pure Land practice emphasizes the dynamic interplay between the "other-power" of Amitabha and the "self-power" of the practitioner's efforts. Central to his teaching is the concept of "sympathetic resonance" (ganying), which is based on the view that all phenomena are manifestations of theOne Mind (Dharmakaya).[152] For Ouyi, the most effective way to achieve awakening is throughnianfo (Buddha-recollection), a practice which he sees as harmonizing Zen and the scriptural traditions.[153] He presents a threefold model of nianfo practice: (1) contemplating the external Buddha, (2) meditating on one's intrinsicBuddha-nature, and (3) merging the two in simultaneous contemplation. Ouyi asserts that the Buddha's name itself carries the power of Amitabha's enlightened nature, allowing even those with scattered minds to plant seeds of awakening simply by hearing or reciting it. This reflects his conviction that Amitabha's compassionate power transcends individual effort, ensuring all beings can form an affinity with the Pure Land path.[154]
In addition to repentance, textual practices centered aroundLotus Sutra devotion is also n important part of Tiantai practice. Tiantai emphasizes the veneration of theLotus Sutra itself as a sacred text, often treating it as the embodiment of the Buddha. Practices such ascopying the sutra (or sponsoring such an act), reciting it (as a solitary practice or in a group), teaching it or listening to its teachings, and performing related devotional acts are believed to generatemerit andwisdom. Through these practices, Tiantai Buddhism aims to balance meditative insight with ritual devotion, offering a comprehensive path toward enlightenment.
TheLotus Sutra itself emphasizes the merit of reading, reciting, copying, and teaching the text. In accordance with this, Zhiyi established recitation rites that incorporated ritual elements such as offerings, group chanting, prostration, andritual purification. The devotional aspect of these rites highlights the belief that theLotus Sutra embodies the Buddha's presence and wisdom. Related practices included visualizations of buddhas and bodhisattvas or even extreme acts of self-sacrifice to demonstrate devotion (such as burning off fingers, or copying the sutra in one's own blood).
Since the time ofZhiyi, Tiantai Buddhism relied on esoteric Buddhist practices, especially the practice of recitingdhāraṇīs. Specifically, Zhiyi wrote the Fangdeng sanmei xingfa 方等三 昧行法 (Method for Practicing the Vaipulya Samādhi, T. 1940) and the Qing Guanyin chan fa 請觀音懺法 (Method for Repentance Through Invoking Avalokiteśvara), which rely on the Mahāvaipulya-dhāraṇī sūtra and the Qing Guanshiyin pusa xiaofudu hai tuoluoni zhou jing 請觀世音菩薩消伏毒害陀羅尼咒經 (Spell Scripture of the Dhāraṇī for Invoking Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva in Order to Get Rid of Poisonous Vexations) respectively.[155] Traditionally, Tiantai Buddhists also recited many other classicdhāraṇī and mantras which are used across Chinese Buddhism, including theTen Small Mantras, theGreat Compassion Dhāraṇī and theShurangama Mantra.
During theSong dynasty, Chinese Tiantai also adopted various elements fromChinese Esoteric Buddhism, a development which led to more complex rituals like Tiantai forms of theLiberation Rite of Water and Land and also TiantaiGhost-feeding Rituals.[156]
The following ancestors or patriarchs (zǔ 祖) are some of the most important masters in Chinese Tiantai:[157]
David Chappell writes that although the Tiantai school, "has the reputation of being...the most comprehensive and diversified school of Chinese Buddhism, it is almost unknown in the West" despite having a "religious framework that seemed suited to adapt to other cultures, to evolve new practices, and to universalize Buddhism". He attributes this failure of expansion to the school having "narrowed its practice to a small number of rituals" and because it has "neglected the intellectual breadth and subtlety of its founder".[70]
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