Theodosius was born on 10 April 401 as the only son of EmperorArcadius and his wifeAelia Eudoxia.[4] On 10 January 402, at the age of 9 months, he was proclaimed co-augustus by his father,[5] thus becoming the youngest to bear the imperial titleup to that point. On 1 May 408, his father died and the seven-year-old boy became the sole emperor of the Eastern half of the Roman Empire.
According to the sixth-century historianProcopius and eight-century chroniclerTheophanes the Confessor, theSasanian kingYazdegerd I (399–420) was appointed by Arcadius as the guardian of Theodosius, whom Yazdegerd treated as his own child, sending a tutor to raise him and warning that enmity toward him would be taken as enmity toward Persia.[6] Though this story is assumed to be inconclusive,Antiochus, aeunuch of Persian origin, became a tutor and an influence on Theodosius. He also becamepraepositus sacri cubiculi later but Theodosius dismissed him when he reached his adulthood.
In 414, Theodosius's older sisterPulcheria vowed perpetual virginity along with her sisters. She was proclaimedaugusta, and acted as a guardian of her brother. The guardianship ended when he reached his majority, but it is assumed that his sister continued to exert some influence during his reign. In June 421, Theodosius marriedAelia Eudocia, a woman ofAthenian origin.[7] The two had a daughter namedLicinia Eudoxia, another named Flaccilla, and possibly a son called Arcadius.
In 423, the Western EmperorHonorius, Theodosius's uncle, died and theprimicerius notariorumJoannes was proclaimed emperor. Honorius's sisterGalla Placidia and her young sonValentinian, who had earlier fled to Constantinople to escape Honorius's hostility, sought Eastern assistance to claim the throne for Valentinian, and after some deliberation in 424 Theodosius opened the war against Joannes. On 23 October 425, Valentinian III was installed as emperor of the West with the assistance of themagister officiorumHelion, with his mother taking an influential role. To strengthen the ties between the two parts of the empire, Theodosius's daughterLicinia Eudoxia was betrothed to Valentinian. She married Valentinian III later on 29 October 437, and became empress of the western portion of the empire.
In 425, Theodosius founded theUniversity of Constantinople with 31 chairs (15 in Latin and 16 in Greek). Among the subjects were law, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music and rhetoric. It is likely that his wife Eudocia encouraged him in this matter and was behind the establishment of the university;[citation needed] she had been born in Athens, where theNeoplatonic School of Athens was the last great center for pagan, classical learning. Eudocia was known for her great intellect.
In 429, Theodosius appointed a commission to collect all of the laws since the reign ofConstantine I, and create a fully formalized system of law. This plan was left unfinished, but the work of a second commission that met in Constantinople, assigned to collect all of the general legislations and bring them up to date, was completed; their collection was published as theCodex Theodosianus in 438. The law code of Theodosius II, summarizing edicts promulgated since Constantine, formed a basis for the law code of EmperorJustinian I, theCorpus Juris Civilis, in the following century.
Solidus of Theodosius, minted in Constantinoplec. 435
Eudocia reached the height of her influence with the emperor from 439 to 441, a period in which, according to some sources, the emperor's sister Pulcheria was sidelined in favor of his wife. However, a separation ultimately occurred between the imperial couple between 441 and 444, with Eudocia's establishment in Jerusalem where she favored monasticMonophysitism. The reasons for her banishment are related by two conflicting tales.[8]
The sixth-century historianJohn Malalas of Antioch explains Eudocia's departure in a legend involving a certainPhrygian apple. Malalas wrote in hisChronicle that one day, the emperor was on his way to church when a man presented the emperor with an "apple huge beyond any exaggeration." The emperor thanked the man with 150solidi, and promptly sent the apple to his wife as a present. Eudocia decided to give the apple to Paulinus, a friend of both her and the emperor. Paulinus, unknowing of where Eudocia had gotten the apple, thought it was fit for only the emperor, and gave it to him. Theodosius was suspicious, and asked Eudocia what she had done with the apple. "I ate it," she replied, and then Theodosius asked her to confirm her answer with an oath, which she did. Theodosius then presented her with the enormous apple. The emperor was enraged and suspected an affair between Eudocia and Paulinus; he had his lifelong friend Paulinus executed, and Eudocia asked to be exiled to Jerusalem.
But the contemporaryEast Roman diplomat and historianPriscus and a sixth-century chroniclerMarcellinus Comes relate a different story. In their version, Eudocia murderedcomes domesticorum Saturninus for killing her close associates. In response, the emperor stripped her of her attendants and she settled in Jerusalem.
Theodosius receives the Phrygian Apple and inquisits Eudocia about it. A scene from the 14th centuryManasses Chronicle.
The situation between the Romans and the Sassanids deteriorated in 420 due to the Persian persecution of Christians, and the Eastern empire declaredwar against the Sasanian empire (421–422); the war ended in an indecisive stalemate, when the Romans were forced to accept peace as the Huns menacedConstantinople.[9][10] Peace was arranged in 422 without changes to thestatus quo. The later wars of Theodosius were generally less successful.
The Eastern Empire was plagued by raids by theHuns. Early in Theodosius II's reign Romans used internal Hun discord to overcomeUldin's invasion of the Balkans. The Romans strengthened their fortifications and in 424 agreed to pay 350 pounds of gold to encourage the Huns to remain at peace with the Romans. In 433 with the rise ofAttila andBleda to unify the Huns, the payment was doubled to 700 pounds.
Theodosius became engaged with the affairs of the West after installing Valentinian III as his Western counterpart. When Roman Africafell to theVandals in 439, Theodosius sent forces toSicily, intending to launch an attack on the Vandals at Carthage, but this project failed. Seeing the borders without significant forces, the Huns attacked and the expeditionary force had to be recalled. During 443 two Roman armies were defeated and destroyed by the Huns.Anatolius negotiated a peace agreement; the Huns withdrew in exchange for humiliating concessions, including an annual tribute of 2,100 Roman pounds (c. 687 kg) of gold and an additional payment of 6,000 pounds.[11] In 447 the Huns went through the Balkans, destroying among others the city ofSerdica (Sofia) and reaching Athyra (Büyükçekmece) on the outskirts of Constantinople. In 449, an Eastern Roman attempt to assassinate Attila failed, however the relations between the two did not deteriorate further.
Theodosius welcomes the relics ofJohn Chrysostom; miniature from the early 11th century
Theodosius frequently attempted to resolve doctrinal controversies regarding the nature ofChrist. During a visit toSyria, Theodosius met the monkNestorius, a renowned preacher. Nestorius was appointed asarchbishop of Constantinople in 428 and became involved in aChristological dispute between two groups. One group called theVirgin MaryTheotokos ("birth-giver of God"), based on God being born a man in Christ, and the other rejected the title, based on God being eternal and thus could not be born. Nestorius' compromise, the titleChristotokos ("birth-giver of Christ"), was rejected; he was accused of separating Christ's divine and human natures, resulting in "two Christs", in a doctrine later calledNestorianism. Though initially enjoying Theodosius' favor, Nestorius was strongly opposed by ArchbishopCyril of Alexandria and eventually lost Theodosius's support. Nestorius had also alienated the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. At Nestorius's request, the emperor convened theFirst Council of Ephesus in 431 to allow Nestorius to contest Cyril's accusations of heresy. The council was divided between the Cyrillians and the Nestorians, with Theodosius ultimately favoring the Cyrillians. The council affirmed the titleTheotokos and condemned Nestorius, who returned to his monastery in Syria and was eventually exiled to a remote monastery in Egypt.
Constantinopolitan abbotEutyches reignited the theological dispute almost twenty years later by asserting the Monophysite view that Christ's divine and human nature were one. Eutyches was condemned by ArchbishopFlavian of Constantinople but supported by the powerfulDioscurus of Alexandria, Cyril's successor. TheSecond Council of Ephesus in 449 restored Eutyches and deposed Flavian. TheChalcedonians opposed the decision, withPope Leo I calling the council the "robber synod". Theodosius supported the outcome, but it was reversed by theCouncil of Chalcedon which was held a year after his death in 450.
Coin of Theodosius II, found in the excavation of a monastery inAjanta Caves,India
Theodosius died on 28 July 450[12] as the result of falling off his horse. On 25 November, his sisterPulcheria married the newly elected emperorMarcian, adomesticus under the influential generalAspar. The eunuchChrysaphius was executed or murdered shortly after by the new imperial couple.[13]
Papyrus with handwriting of Theodosius II. On the top right corner, the text readsbene valere te cupimus, roughly meaning "we hope that you are in good health". This is the only surviving handwriting of a Roman emperor.[15]
Theodosius is often seen by both ancient and modern historians as being constantly pushed around by his sister, wife, and eunuchs, particularlyChrysaphius among them.[16] In the later decades of his life, Chrysaphius rose to prominence as one of the emperor's favorites. He favored the pro-Monophysite policy, influenced the foreign policy towards theHuns, and was resented by Pulcheria, generalZeno, and pro-Chalcedonian writers.[17] According toTheodorus Lector, Theodosius was so unmindful of his surroundings that he accidentally signed his sister's note selling his wife, Eudocia, into slavery.[18]
However, these views of Theodosius have been challenged in modern scholarship. Some historians argue that contrary to hostile ancient sources, Theodosius was more in control of his government.[19] Others view that the government was controlled mostly by the high ranking civilian officials of theconsistorium, and not by Pulcheria or Eudocia.[20] HistorianChristopher Kelly notes that the modern dismissal of Theodosius has origins in theEnlightenment disapproval,[21] and argues that "the reign of Theodosius II should not be too quickly dismissed, simplified or partitioned."[22]
Among ancient and medieval writers, Monophysites had a favorable opinion of Theodosius.[23] Theodosius was also a very learned emperor, with a great aptitude for maths, history, astronomy and writing, hence his nickname "the Calligrapher" by some later historians. Theodosius has been described byKenneth Holum as "a man of intelligence and sincerity but little backbone."[24]
Cameron, Alan (1982). "The empress and the poet: Paganism and politics at the court of Theodosius II".Yale Classical Studies.27:217–89.doi:10.1017/CBO9780511972928.008.
Lee, A.D. (2013).From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Millar, Fergus (2006).A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief Under Theodosius II. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 2–64.ISBN978-0-520-25391-9.
S. Crogiez-Pétrequin; P. Jaillette; J.-M. Poinsotte, eds. (2009).Codex Theodosianus V. Texte latin d'après l'édition de Mommsen. Traduction, introduction et notes. Brepols Publishers.ISBN978-2-503-51722-3.
Vasiliki Limberis,Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople (London: Routledge, 1994) has a significant section about Theodosius II and his sister Pulcheria.
Rösch, Gerhard (1978).Onoma Basileias: Studien zum offiziellen Gebrauch der Kaisertitel in spätantiker und frühbyzantinischer Zeit. Byzantina et Neograeca Vindobonensia (in German). Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.ISBN978-3-7001-0260-1.
Treadgold, Warren T. (1997).A history of the Byzantine state and society. Stanford University Press.ISBN0-8047-2630-2.
