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Jewish prayer (Hebrew:תְּפִילָּה,tefilla[tfiˈla]; pluralתְּפִילּוֹתtefillot[tfiˈlot];Yiddish:תּפֿלה,romanized: tfile[ˈtfɪlə], pluralתּפֿלותtfilles[ˈtfɪləs];Yinglish:davening/ˈdɑːvənɪŋ/ from Yiddishדאַווןdavn 'pray') is theprayer recitation that forms part of the observance ofRabbinic Judaism. These prayers, often with instructions and commentary, are found in theSiddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book.
Prayer, as a "service of the heart," is in principle a Torah-basedcommandment.[1] It is mandatory for Jewish women and men.[2] However, the rabbinic requirement to recite a specific prayer text does differentiate between men and women: Jewish men are obligated to recite three prayers each day within specific time ranges (zmanim), while, according to many approaches, women are only required to pray once or twice a day, and may not be required to recite a specific text.[3]
Traditionally, three prayer services are recited daily:
Two additional services are recited onShabbat and holidays:
A distinction is made between individual prayer and communal prayer, which requires aquorum known as aminyan, with communal prayer being preferable as it permits the inclusion of prayers that otherwise would be omitted.
According to tradition, many of the current standard prayers were composed by the sages of theGreat Assembly in the earlySecond Temple period (516 BCE – 70 CE). The language of the prayers, while clearly from this period, often employs biblical idiom. The main structure of the modern prayer service was fixed in theTannaic era (1st–2nd centuries CE), with some additions and the exact text of blessings coming later. Jewish prayerbooks emerged during the earlyMiddle Ages during the period of theGeonim ofBabylonia (6th–11th centuries CE).[5]
Over the last 2000 years, traditional variations have emerged among the traditionalliturgicalcustoms of different Jewish communities, such asAshkenazic,Sephardic,Yemenite,Eretz Yisrael and others, or rather recent liturgical inventions such asNusach Sefard andNusach Ari. However the differences are minor compared with the commonalities. Much of the Jewish liturgy is sung or chanted with traditional melodies ortrope.Synagogues may designate or employ a professional or layhazzan (cantor) for the purpose of leading the congregation in prayer, especially on Shabbat or holy holidays.
According to theBabylonian Talmud, prayer is abiblical command:
You shall serve God with your whole heart'[6] – What service is performed with the heart? This is prayer.[7]
Based on this passage,Maimonides categorizes daily prayer as one of the613 commandments.[8] He rules that the commandment is fulfilled by any prayer at any time in the day, not a specific text; and thus is not time-dependent, and is mandatory for both Jewish men and women.[2] In contrast, the requirement to say specific prayers at specific times is based not on biblical law, but ratherrabbinic decree.[9]
Additional references in theHebrew Bible have been interpreted to suggest thatKing David and the prophetDaniel prayed three times a day. InPsalms, David states:
Evening, morning, and noontime, I speak and moan, andHe hearkened to my voice.[10]
And in theBook of Daniel:
And Daniel, when he knew that a writ had been inscribed, came to his house, where there were open windows in his upper chamber, opposite Jerusalem, and three times a day he kneeled on his knees and prayed and offered thanks before his God just as he had done prior to this.[11]
TheTalmud gives two reasons why there are three basic prayers each day:[12]
The earliest parts of Jewish prayer are theShema Yisrael and thePriestly Blessing, which are in theTorah.[13]
Maimonides asserts that until theBabylonian exile, all Jews composed their own prayers. After the exile, however, when the exiles' understanding of Hebrew diminished and they found it difficult to compose prayers in Hebrew,Ezra and his court composed theAmidah prayer.[9] Modern scholarship dating from theWissenschaft des Judentums movement of 19th-century Germany, as well as textual analysis influenced by the 20th-century discovery of theDead Sea Scrolls, suggests that dating from the Second Temple period there existed "liturgical formulations of a communal nature designated for particular occasions and conducted in a centre totally independent of Jerusalem and the Temple, making use of terminology and theological concepts that were later to become dominant in Jewish and, in some cases, Christian prayer."[14]
The structure of the modern Jewish prayer service was established during the period of theTannaim, "from their traditions, later committed to writing, we learn that the generation of rabbis active at the time of the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE) gave Jewish prayer its structure and, in outline form at least, its contents."[15] This liturgy included the twice-daily recitation of the Shema, theAmidah, and the cycle of publicTorah reading.[15]
TheAmidah (orShemoneh Esreh) prayer is traditionally ascribed to theGreat Assembly (in the time ofEzra, near the end of the biblical period), though other sources suggest it was established bySimeon HaPakoli in the late 1st century. Even in the 1st century, though, the precise wording of the blessings was not yet fixed, and varied from locale to locale. By theMiddle Ages the texts of the blessings was nearly fixed, and in the form in which they are still used today.
Readings from theTorah (five books of Moses) and theNevi'im ("Prophets") are specified in theMishnah andTalmud, as are the order of blessings surrounding theShema. Other parts of the service, such asPesukei dezimra, have little mention in early sources, but became established by custom.
The oldest prayer books date from the time of theGeonim ofBabylonia; "some were composed by respected rabbinic scholars at the request of far-flung communities seeking an authoritative text of the required prayers for daily use, Shabbat, and holidays."[15] The earliest existing codification of the prayerbook was drawn up by RavAmram Gaon of Sura, Babylon, about 850 CE. Half a century later RavSaadia Gaon, also of Sura, composed asiddur, in which the rubrical matter is inArabic. These were the basis of Simcha ben Samuel'sMachzor Vitry (11th-century France), which was based on the ideas of his teacher,Rashi. Another formulation of the prayers was that appended byMaimonides to the laws of prayer in hisMishneh Torah: this forms the basis of the Yemenite liturgy, and has had some influence on other rites. From this point forward, all Jewish prayerbooks had the same basic order and contents.
The siddur was printed bySoncino in Italy as early as 1486, though a siddur was first mass-distributed only in 1865. The siddur began appearing in thevernacular as early as 1538. The first Englishtranslation, by Gamaliel ben Pedahzur (apseudonym), appeared in London in 1738; a different translation was released in the United States in 1837.[16]
Over the last 2000 years, the various branches of Judaism have resulted in small variations in the Rabbinic liturgycustoms among different Jewish communities, with each community having a slightly differentnusach (customary liturgy). The principal difference is betweenAshkenazic andSephardic customs, although there are other communities (e.g.,Yemenite andItalian Jews, and in the pastEretz Yisrael), and rather recent liturgical inventions such asHassidic,Chabad and other communities also have distinct customs, variations, and special prayers. However, the differences between all these customs are quite minor compared with the commonalities.Reform Judaism also has its own version.
According tohalakha, all individual prayers and virtually all communal prayers may be said in any language that the person praying understands. For example, theMishnah mentions that theShema need not be said in Hebrew.[17] A list of prayers that must be said in Hebrew is given in the Mishna,[18] and among these only thePriestly Blessing is in use today, as the others are prayers that are to be said only in aTemple in Jerusalem, by apriest, or by a reigningKing.
Despite this, the tradition of mostAshkenaziOrthodox synagogues is to use Hebrew for all except a small number of prayers, includingKaddish andYekum Purkan inAramaic, andGott Fun Avraham, which was written in Yiddish. In other streams of Judaism there is considerable variability:Sephardic communities may useLadino orPortuguese for many prayers, although usually only for added prayers and not for the established prayers;Conservative synagogues tend to use the local language to a varying degree; and at someReform synagogues almost the whole service may be in the local language.
The language of the prayers, while clearly being from the Second Temple period,[19] often employs biblical idiom, and according to some authorities it should not contain rabbinic or Mishnaic idiom apart from in the sections of Mishnah that are featured.
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Conservative services generally use the same basic format for services as Orthodox Judaism, with some doctrinal leniencies and some prayers in English. In practice, there is wide variation among Conservative congregations. In traditionalist congregations the liturgy can be almost identical to that of Orthodox Judaism, almost entirely in Hebrew (and Aramaic), with a few minor exceptions, including excision of a study session on Temple sacrifices, and modifications of prayers for the restoration of thesacrificial system. In more liberal Conservative synagogues there are greater changes to the service, with up to a third of the service in English; abbreviation or omission of many of the preparatory prayers; and replacement of some traditional prayers with more contemporary forms. There are some changes for doctrinal reasons, includingegalitarian language, fewer references to restoringsacrifices in theTemple in Jerusalem, and an option to eliminate special roles forKohanim andLevites.
The liturgies ofReform andReconstructionist are based on traditional elements, but contain language more reflective of liberal belief than the traditional liturgy. Doctrinal revisions generally include revising or omitting references to traditional doctrines such as bodilyresurrection, a personalJewish Messiah, and other elements of traditionalJewish eschatology, Divine revelation of theTorah atMount Sinai,angels, conceptions of reward and punishment, and other personal miraculous and supernatural elements. Services are often from 40% to 90% in the vernacular.
Reform Judaism has made greater alterations to the traditional service in accord with its more liberaltheology including dropping references to traditional elements ofJewish eschatology such as a personalMessiah, a bodilyresurrection of the dead, and others. The Hebrew portion of the service is substantially abbreviated and modernized and modern prayers substituted for traditional ones. In addition, in keeping with their view that the laws ofShabbat (including a traditional prohibition on playing instruments) are inapplicable to modern circumstances, Reform services often play instrumental or recorded music with prayers on theJewish Sabbath. All Reform synagogues areEgalitarian with respect to gender roles.
InJewish philosophy and inRabbinic literature, it is noted that the Hebrew verb for prayer—hitpallel (התפלל)—is in fact thereflexive form ofpalal (פלל), to judge. Thus, "to pray" conveys the notion of "judging oneself":[a] ultimately, the purpose of prayer—tefillah (תפלה)—is to transform oneself.[20][21]
Thisetymology is consistent with theJewish conception ofdivine simplicity. It is not God that changes through one's prayer—man does not influence God as a defendant influences a human judge who has emotions and is subject to change—rather it is man himself who is changed.[22] It is further consistent withMaimonides'view onDivine Providence. Here, Tefillah is the medium which God gave to man by means of which he can change himself, and thereby establish a newrelationship with God—and thus a new destiny for himself in life;[22][23] seealso underPsalms.
Kabbalah (esoteric Jewish mysticism) uses a series ofkavanot, directions of intent, to specify the path the prayer ascends in the dialogue with God, to increase its chances of being answered favorably. Kabbalism ascribes a higher meaning to the purpose of prayer, which is no less than affecting the very fabric of reality itself, restructuring and repairing the universe in a real fashion. In this view, every word of every prayer, and indeed, even every letter of every word, has a precise meaning and a precise effect. Prayers thus literally affect the mystical forces of the universe, and repair the fabric of creation.
This approach has been taken by theChassidei Ashkenaz (German pietists of the Middle-Ages), theZohar, theArizal's Kabbalist tradition, theRamchal, most ofHassidism, theVilna Gaon andJacob Emden.
Hassidism, although incorporating the kabbalistic worldview and its corresponding kavanot, also emphasized straightforward sincerity and depth of emotional engagement in prayer.[24] TheBaal Shem Tov's great-grandson,Rebbe Nachman of Breslov, particularly emphasized speaking to God in one's own words, which he calledHitbodedut (self-seclusion) and advised setting aside an hour to do this every day.[25]
Daven is the originally exclusively Eastern Yiddish verb meaning "pray"; it is widely used byAshkenazic Orthodox Jews. InYinglish, this has become theAngliciseddavening.
The origin of the word is obscure, but is thought by some to have come fromArabic (fromdiwan, a collection of poems or prayers),French (fromdevoner, 'to devote' or 'dedicate' or possibly from the French 'devant'- 'in front of' with the idea that the person praying is mindful of before whom they stand),Latin (fromdivin, 'divine') or evenEnglish (fromdawn).[26] Others believe that it derives from aSlavic word meaning "to give" (Russian:давать,romanized: davat'). Some claim that it originates from an Aramaic word,de'avuhon ord'avinun, meaning 'of their/our forefathers', as the three prayers are said to have been invented byAbraham,Isaac andJacob. Another Aramaic derivation, proposed byAvigdor Chaikin, cites the Talmudic phrase, "ka davai lamizrach", 'gazing wistfully to the east'.[27] Kevin A. Brook[28] cited Zeiden's suggestion[29] that the worddaven comes from the Turkic roottabun- meaning 'to pray', and that inKipchak Turkic, the initialt morphs intod, but also cited Beider's opinion that Zeiden's etymology is unlikely.[30]
In Western Yiddish, the term forpray isoren, a word with clear roots inRomance languages, similar to Spanish and Portugueseorar and Latinorare.[31]
Individual prayer is considered acceptable, but prayer with a quorum of ten Jewish adults—aminyan—is the most highly recommended form of prayer and is required for some prayers. An adult in this context means over the age of 12 or 13 (bat orbar mitzvah). Judaism had originally counted only men in theminyan for formal prayer, on the basis that one does not count someone who is not obligated to participate. The rabbis had exempted women from almost all time-specific positive mitzvot (commandments), including those parts of the prayer that cannot be recited without a quorum, due to women in the past being bound up in an endless cycle of pregnancy, birthing and nursing from a very early age. Orthodox Judaism still follows this reasoning and excludes women from the minyan.
Since 1973,Conservative congregations have overwhelmingly become egalitarian and count women in theminyan. A very small number of congregations that identify themselves as Conservative have resisted these changes and continue to exclude women from the minyan. Those Reform and Reconstructionist congregations that consider aminyan mandatory for communal prayer, count both men and women for aminyan. All denominations of Judaism except for Orthodox Judaism ordain female rabbis and cantors.[32]
There is a publicly said prayer, calledBirkhat HaGomel, for giving thanks for surviving an illness or danger.[33] which, in addition to needing aMinyan, also needs a Torah scroll taken out for a scheduled Torah reading.
In the event one of the prayers was missed inadvertently, the Amidah prayer is said twice in the next service—a procedure known astefillat tashlumin.[37]
Many Jews sway their body back and forth during prayer. This practice, referred to asshuckling inYiddish, is not mandatory.
Many are accustomed to giving charity before, during (especially duringVayivarech David) or after prayer, in the hopes that this will make their prayer more likely to be heard.
According to theTalmud, during prayer one should face towardJerusalem, and specifically the site of theTemple in Jerusalem. This is based onSolomon's prayer "...and they will pray to You toward their land, which You gave to their fathers; the city which You have chosen; and the house which I have built for Your name" (1 Kings 8:48).[38]
TheShacharit (fromshachar, morning light) prayer is recited in the morning.Halacha limits parts of its recitation to the first three (Shema) or four (Amidah) hours of the day, where "hours" are 1/12 of daylight time, making these times dependent on the season.[39]
Shacharit is generally the lengthiest prayer of the day. Its components includeBirkot hashachar,Korbanot,Pesukei dezimra, theShema Yisrael and its blessings, theAmidah, andTachanun. Of these, the recitation of Shema Yisrael and the Amidah constitute the core of the Shacharit service. Those Jews who weartallit andtefillin generally only do so during the Shacharit prayer.[40]
Mincha orMinha may be recited from half an hour afterhalachic noontime, until sunset.Sephardim andItalian Jews start the Mincha prayers withPsalm 84 andKorbanot,[41] and usually continue with thePittum hakketoret. The opening section is concluded with Malachi 3:4.[42]
Ashrei is recited, followed by half-Kaddish, theAmidah (including repetition),Tachanun, and then the full Kaddish. Sephardim insert a Psalm,[43] followed by the Mourner's Kaddish. After this follows, in most modern rites, theAleinu. Most Ashkenazim then conclude with the Mourner's Kaddish. In Ashkenazic, Italian and Yemenite communities, the service leaders often wears a tallit.
Generally, the time whenMaariv can first be recited is when the time for recitingMincha ends. But there are varying opinions on this.Maariv should not begin before 1¼ hours beforesunset. Others delayMaariv until after sunset or afterdusk. IfMaariv is recited prior to dusk, individuals repeat the Shema later in the evening.[44]
The main components of Maariv are the recitation of theShema (with two blessings before it and two after it), followed by theAmidah (which is not repeated, unlike with other recitations of the Amidah). Some communities add a third blessing between the Shema and Amidah. Some additional prayers and biblical verses are recited as well; these vary by community and occasion.
OnShabbat (the Sabbath), prayers are similar in structure to those on weekdays, although almost every part is lengthened. One exception is theAmidah, the main prayer, which is abridged. The first three and last three blessings are recited as usual, but the middle thirteen are replaced with a single blessing known as "sanctity of the day," describing the Sabbath. Atypically, this middle blessing is different for each of the prayers.
Shabbat services begin on Friday afternoon with the weekday Mincha.Tachnun is omitted. In some Ashkenazic communities, Aleinu is omitted since it will be followed immediately by Kabbalat Shabbat. In recent times, some prefer to daven early mincha on Friday.
Some communities recite theSong of Songs, and then in most communities followed by theKabbalat Shabbat, the mystical prelude to Shabbat services composed by 16th-centuryKabbalists. Although the service was composed in the 16th century, some communities did not adopt it until much later; for example, it was not recited in the main synagogue inFrankfurt am Main until the mid-19th century,[45] and it was not recited inWorms even later.[46] ThisHebrew term literally means "Receiving the Sabbath". In recent decades, some communities have adopted the practice to sing the piyutYedid Nefesh before (or occasionally after) the Kabbalat Shabbat prayers.
In Ashkenazic and some Sephardic communities, Kabbalat Shabbat is begins with six Psalms,[47] representing the six weekdays.[48] InItalian Nusach and manySephardic communinties (includingSpanish and Portuguese Jews and many Middle Eastern Sephardic communities) onlyPsalm 29 is recited (some addPsalm 100).[49] Some then reciteAna BeKoach. After that, the poemLekha Dodi is recited. It based on the words of theTalmudic sage Hanina: "Come, let us go out to meet the Queen Sabbath".[50] Kabbalat Shabbat is concluded by Psalm 92[51] (in most communities, the recital of which constitutes acceptance of the current Shabbat with all its obligations) and Psalm 93.[52] Many add a study section here, includingBameh Madlikin andAmar rabbi El'azar and the concludingKaddish deRabbanan (in the Western Ashkenazic rite, a mourners kaddish is instead recited afterBameh Madlikin) and is then followed by the Maariv service; other communities delay the study session until after Maariv. According toNusach Sefard, a passage from theZohar, entitledKegavna is recited instead ofBameh Madlikin. In modern times the Kabbalat Shabbat has been set to music by many composers including:Robert Strassburg[53] andSamuel Adler[54]
TheShema section of the Friday night service varies in some details from the weekday services—mainly in the different ending of theHashkivenu prayer and the omission ofBaruch HaShem Le'Olam prayer in those traditions where this section is otherwise recited. In theItalian rite, there are also different versions of theMa'ariv aravim prayer (beginningasher killah) and theEmet Ve-Emunah prayer.
Most commemorate the Shabbat at this point withVeShameru.[55] The custom to recite these verses appears in many early sources such as Siddur RavSaadya Gaon (who recited the blessingYiru Eineinu after these verses) and is found in the vast majority of old prayer books of a variety of rites. However, it is absent from theYemeniteBaladi tradition (although has been added in most Baladi communities in the last few hundred years), and it is not recited according to the traditions of theVilna Gaon orChabad who are opposed to adding additional readings to the siddur which are not mentioned in the Talmud.
On Friday night, the middle blessing of theAmidah discusses the conclusion ofcreation, quoting the relevant verses fromGenesis. The Amidah is then followed by theSeven-Faceted Blessing, thehazzan's mini-repetition of the Amidah. In some Ashkenazi Orthodox synagogues the second chapter ofMishnah tractate Shabbat,Bameh Madlikin, is read at this point, instead of earlier.Kiddush is recited in the synagogue in many Ashkenazic Italian communities. Some communities recitePsalm 23 and the service then follows withAleinu. Most Sephardic and many Ashkenazic synagogues end with the singing ofYigdal, a poetic adaptation ofMaimonides' 13 principles of Jewish faith. Other Ashkenazic synagogues end withAdon Olam instead, and some do not recite either poem.
Shabbat morning prayers differ from weekday morning prayers in several ways: an expanded version ofPesukei dezimra, a longer version of theYotzer ohr blessing (in most communities), the seven-blessing Shabbat version of theAmidah, noTachanun, a longerTorah reading including the reading of theHaftarah, and some additional prayers after the Torah reading. In many communities, the rabbi (or a learned member of the congregation) delivers a sermon at the very end of Shacharit and before Mussaf, usually on the topic of the Torah reading.
TheMusaf service starts with the silent recitation of theAmidah. The middle blessing includes theTikanta Shabbat reading on the holiness of Shabbat (in Yemenite communities, as well as some Sephardic communitiesLe-Mosheh Tsivita is recited instead ofTikanta Shabbat), and then by a reading from the biblicalBook of Numbers about the sacrifices that used to be performed in theTemple in Jerusalem. Next comesYismechu, "They shall rejoice in Your sovereignty", andEloheynu, "Our God and God of our Ancestors, may you be pleased with our rest" (which is recited during allAmidahs of the Sabbath). After the silent prayer, the leader repeats the prayer, adding an expanded version ofKedushah. In some Sephardic and Yemenite communities, rather than the silent prayer and repetition, the leader recited his own prayer aloud and the congregation prays along with him.
After theAmidah comes the full Kaddish, followed byEin keloheinu. In Orthodox Judaism this is followed by a reading from theTalmud on theincense offering calledPittum Haketoreth and daily psalms that used to be recited in the Temple in Jerusalem. These readings are usually omitted byConservative Jews, and are always omitted byReform Jews.
TheMusaf service culminates with the Rabbi's Kaddish (in the Western Ashkenazic rite, the Mourners Kaddish is recited instead), theAleinu, followed in many communities by the Mourner's Kaddish. Somesynagogues conclude with the reading of Shir Hayichud,Anim Zemirot (sometimes followed by a Mourner's Kaddish), thePsalm of the Day (sometimes followed by a Mourner's Kaddish) - in some communities, these are recited before the Torah reading or at the beginning of services instead. Many communities conclude with eitherAdon Olam or Yigdal.
Mincha commences withAshrei and the prayerUva letzion, after which the first section of the nextweekly portion isread from the Torah scroll. TheAmidah follows the same pattern as the other ShabbatAmidah prayers, with the middle blessing startingAttah Echad. The short prayerTzidkatcha is recited after theAmidah, followed by Kaddish and Aleinu.[56]
At the conclusion of the Sabbath, the weekday Ma'ariv is recited. Some communities recite (sometimes sing)Psalm 144 andPsalm 67.[57] In the amidah, ata chonantanu is added in the fourth blessing. After the conclusion of the Amidah,Vihi No'am,Veyiten Lecha, andHavdalah are recited, followed byAleinu; some delay the recitation of Ve-Yitten lekha until after the recitation of Havdalah at home.[58]
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The services for theDays of Awe,Rosh Hashana andYom Kippur, take on a solemn tone as befits these days. Traditional solemn tunes are used in the prayers.
The musaf service on Rosh Hashana has nine blessings; the three middle blessings include biblical verses attesting to sovereignty, remembrance and theshofar, which is sounded during the service.
Yom Kippur is the only day in the year when there are five prayer services. The evening service, containing the Ma'ariv prayer, is widely known as "Kol Nidrei", the opening declaration made preceding the prayer. During the daytime, shacharit, musaf (which is recited on Shabbat and all festivals) and mincha are followed, as the sun begins to set, byNe'ila, which is recited just this once a year.
The services for the three festivals ofPesach ("Passover"),Shavuot ("Feast of Weeks" or "Pentecost"), andSukkot ("Feast of Tabernacles") are alike, except for interpolatedpiyyutim and readings for each individual festival.[59] The preliminaries and conclusions of the prayers are the same as on Shabbat. The Amidah on these festivals only contains seven benedictions, withAttah Bechartanu as the main one. After the Shacharit Amidah,Hallel (communal recitation of Psalms 113–118) follows; on the last six days of Passover, Hallal is recited in its abbreviated form and customs vary as to whether a blessing is recited.[60]
The Musaf service includes Umi-Penei Hata'enu, with reference to the special festival and Temple sacrifices on the occasion.
ThePriestly Blessing ("dukhening") is pronounced during the repetition of the Amidah. While this occurs daily in Israel and most Sephardic congregations, it occurs only onPesach,Shavuot,Sukkot,Rosh Hashanah, andYom Kippur in Ashkenazic (and some Sephardic communities) congregations of the Jewish diaspora. Even when it is omitted, or when there are no kohanim present, a special prayer is instead recited by thehazzan after theModim ("Thanksgiving") prayer) in commemoration of the priestly blessing. (American Reform Jews omit the Musaf service.)
According tohalakha, Jewish men are obligated to perform public prayer three times a day, within specific time ranges (zmanim), plus additional services onJewish holidays.
According to theTalmud, women are generally exempted from obligations that have to be performed at a certain time. (This has interpreted as being due to the need to constantly care for small children, or due to women's alleged higher spiritual level which makes it unnecessary for them to connect to God at specific times, since they are always connected to God.) In accordance with the general exemption from time-bound obligations, women are not required to recite the morning and eveningShema[61] (thoughMishnah Berurah suggests that they say it anyway), and most Orthodox authorities have exempted women from recitingMaariv.[62]
Authorities have disagreed on whether this exemption applies to additional prayers. According to (Ashkenazi)Magen Avraham[63] and more recently (Sephardi) RabbiOvadia Yosef,[64] women are only required to pray once a day, in any form they choose, so long as the prayer contains praise of (brakhot), requests to (bakashot), and thanks of (hodot) God.[65] However, most Orthodox authorities agree that women are not completely exempt from time-bound prayer.[66] TheMishnah Berurah, an important code ofAshkenazic Jewish law, holds that the Men of theGreat Assembly obligated women to reciteShacharit andMinchah each day, "just like men". Nonetheless, even the most liberal Orthodox authorities hold that women cannot count in aminyan for purposes of public prayer.
Traditionally, women were also reciting individualtkhine prayers in Yiddish.
Conservative Judaism regards thehalakhic system of multiple daily services as mandatory. Since 2002, Jewish women from Conservative congregations have been regarded as having undertaken a communal obligation to pray the same prayers at the same times as men, with traditional communities and individual women permitted to opt out.[67]Reform andReconstructionist congregations do not regardhalakha as binding and hence regard appropriate prayer times as matters of personal spiritual decision rather than a matter of religious requirement.
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ThroughoutOrthodox Judaism, including its most liberal forms, men and women are required to sit in separate sections with amechitza (partition) separating them. Historically, a learned woman in theweibershul (women's section or annex) of a synagogue took on the informal role of precentress orfirzogerin for the women praying in parallel to the main service led in the men's section. Conservative/Masorti Judaism permits mixed seating (almost universally in the United States, but not in all countries). All Reform and Reconstructionist congregations have mixed seating.
Haredi and the vast majority ofModern Orthodox Judaism has a blanket prohibition on women leading public congregational prayers. Conservative Judaism has developed a blanket justification for women leading all or virtually all such prayers, holding that although only obligated individuals can lead prayers and women were not traditionally obligated, Conservative Jewish women in modern times have as a collective whole voluntarily undertaken such an obligation.[68] Reform and Reconstructionist congregations permit women to perform all prayer roles because they do not regardhalakha as binding.
A small liberal wing within Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly rabbis friendly to theJewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance (JOFA), has begun re-examining the role of women in prayers based on an individual, case-by-case look at the historical role of specific prayers and services, doing so within classicalhalakhic interpretation. Accepting that where obligation exists only the obligated can lead, this small group has typically made three general arguments for expanded women's roles:
A very small number of Modern Orthodox congregations accept some such arguments, but very few Orthodox congregations or authorities accept all or even most of them. Many of those who do not accept this reasoning point tokol isha, the tradition that prohibits a man from hearing a woman other than his wife or close blood relative sing. JOFA refers to congregations generally accepting such arguments asPartnership Minyanim. On Shabbat in a Partnership Minyan, women can typically leadKabbalat Shabbat, theP'seukei D'Zimrah, the services for removing the Torah from and replacing it to the Ark, and Torah reading, as well as give aD'Var Torah or sermon.
The first Orthodox Jewish women's prayer group was created on the holiday ofSimhat Torah atLincoln Square Synagogue in Manhattan in the late 1960s.[69]
Ephraim Mirvis, an Orthodox rabbi who serves as the Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, supportsShabbat prayer groups for Orthodox women, saying, "Some of our congregations have women prayer groups for Friday night, some Saturday mornings. This is without women reading from the Torah. But for women to come together as a group to pray, this is a good thing."[70]
However, many Modern Orthodox rabbis, including RabbiHershel Schachter, RabbiMordechai Willig, RabbiNisson Alpert and others have ruled that this practice is not permitted.[71] These practices are also unheard of in theHareidi world
In most divisions ofJudaism boys prior tobar mitzvah cannot act as aChazzen for prayer services that containdevarim sheb'kidusha, i.e. Kaddish, Barechu, the amida, etc., or receive analiya or chant the Torah for the congregation. SinceKabbalat Shabbat andPesukei D'zimra do not technically require a chazzan at all, it is possible for a boy prior to bar mitzvah to lead these services. The conclusion of the service on Shabbat andchagim may also be led by children. Under the Moroccan, Yemenite, and Mizrachi customs, a boy prior to bar mitzvah may lead certain prayers, read the Torah, and have an aliyah.[72] It is customary among many Ashkenazim to have children sing "Adon 'Olam" after Mussaf and "Yigdal" after Shabbat and Holiday Maariv. Among Sefardim, Mizrachim, Yemenites, and some Askenazim, a child leads the congregation inKiryat Shema.
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Conservative services generally use the same basic format for services as in Orthodox Judaism, with some doctrinal leniencies and some prayers in English. In practice, there is wide variation among Conservative congregations. In traditionalist congregations the liturgy can be almost identical to that ofOrthodox Judaism, almost entirely in Hebrew (and Aramaic), with a few minor exceptions, including excision of a study session on Temple sacrifices, and modifications of prayers for the restoration of thesacrificial system. In more liberal Conservative synagogues there are greater changes to the service, with up to a third of the service in English; abbreviation or omission of many of the preparatory prayers; and replacement of some traditional prayers with more contemporary forms. There are some changes for doctrinal reasons, includingegalitarian language, fewer references to restoringsacrifices in theTemple in Jerusalem, and an option to eliminate special roles forKohanim andLevites.
The liturgies ofReform andReconstructionist are based on traditional elements, but contains language more reflective of liberal belief than the traditional liturgy. Doctrinal revisions generally include revising or omitting references to traditional doctrines such as bodilyresurrection, a personalJewish Messiah, and other elements of traditionalJewish eschatology, Divine revelation of theTorah atMount Sinai,angels, conceptions of reward and punishment, and other personal miraculous and supernatural elements. Services are often from 40% to 90% in the vernacular.
Reform Judaism has made greater alterations to the traditional service in accord with its more liberaltheology including dropping references to traditional elements ofJewish eschatology such as a personalMessiah, a bodilyresurrection of the dead, and others. The Hebrew portion of the service is substantially abbreviated and modernized and modern prayers substituted for traditional ones. In addition, in keeping with their view that the laws ofShabbat (including a traditional prohibition on playing instruments) are inapplicable to modern circumstances, Reform services often play instrumental or recorded music with prayers on theJewish Sabbath. All Reform synagogues are egalitarian with respect to gender roles.
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