Sun Tzu[a] was a Chinesemilitary general,strategist,philosopher, andwriter who lived during theEastern Zhou period (771–256 BC). Sun Tzu is traditionally credited as the author ofThe Art of War, an influential work of military strategy that has affected bothWestern andEast Asian philosophy and military thought. Sun Tzu is revered inChinese and East Asian culture as a legendary historical and military figure. His birth name wasSun Wu[b] and he was known outside of his family by hiscourtesy nameChangqing.[c][3] The nameSun Tzu—by which he is more popularly known—is anhonorific which means "MasterSun".
Sun Tzu mastered the military science of ancient China and created the military doctrine of asymmetrical warfare. According to it, an attack on the enemy should begin only after the enemy has no opportunity to either defend or counterattack. It was used in the wars in the era of the Warring States in ancient China (about 475–221 BC). Those combat combinations had specific names, descriptions and classifications.
Sun Tzu'shistoricity is uncertain. TheHan dynasty historianSima Qian and other traditional Chinese historians placed him as a minister toKing Helü of Wu and dated his lifetime to 544–496 BC. Many modern scholars accepting his historicity place the extant text ofThe Art of War in the laterWarring States period of 475 to 221 BC, based on its style of composition and its descriptions of warfare.[4] Traditional accounts state that the general's descendantSun Bin wrote a treatise on military tactics, also titledThe Art of War. Since both Sun Wu and Sun Bin were referred to as "Sun Tzu" in classical Chinese texts, some historians believed them identical, prior to the rediscovery of Sun Bin's treatise in 1972.
Sun Tzu's work has been praised and employed throughout the arc of East Asian military history since its composition, and eventually earned global attention. During the twentieth century,The Art of War grew in popularity and saw practical use in theWestern world as well.
The oldest available sources disagree as to where Sun Tzu was born. TheSpring and Autumn Annals andSima Qian's laterRecords of the Grand Historian (Shiji) state that Sun Tzu was born inQi.[5] Both sources also agree that Sun Tzu was born in the lateSpring and Autumn period and that he was active as a general and strategist, servingKingHelü ofWu in the sixth century BC, beginning around 512 BC. Sun Tzu's victories then inspired him to writeThe Art of War.The Art of War was one of the most widely read military treatises in the subsequentWarring States period, a time of constant war among seven ancient Chinese states—Zhao,Qi,Qin,Chu,Han,Wei, andYan—who fought to control the vast expanse of fertile territory in Eastern China.[6]
One of the better-known stories about Sun Tzu, taken from Sima Qian, illustrates Sun Tzu's temperament as follows: Before hiring Sun Tzu, the King of Wu tested Sun Tzu's skills by commanding him to train aharem of 180concubines into soldiers. Sun Tzu divided them into two companies, appointing the two concubines most favored by the king as the company commanders. When Sun Tzu first ordered the concubines to face right, they giggled. In response, Sun Tzu said that the general, in this case himself, was responsible for ensuring that soldiers understood the commands given to them. Then, he reiterated the command, and again the concubines giggled. Sun Tzu then ordered the execution of the king's two favored concubines, to the king's protests. He explained that if the general's soldiers understood their commands but did not obey, it was the fault of the officers. Sun Tzu also said that, once a general was appointed, it was his duty to carry out his mission, even if the king protested. After both concubines were killed, new officers were chosen to replace them. Afterward, both companies, now well aware of the costs of further frivolity, performed their maneuvers flawlessly.[7]
Sima Qian claimed that Sun Tzu later proved on the battlefield that his theories were effective (for example, at theBattle of Boju), that he had a successful military career, and that he wroteThe Art of War based on his tested expertise.[7] However, theZuozhuan, a historical text written centuries earlier than theShiji, provides a much more detailed account of the Battle of Boju, but does not mention Sun Tzu at all.[8]
Around the 12th century AD, some Chinese scholars began to doubt the historical existence of Sun Tzu, primarily on the grounds that he is not mentioned in the historical classicZuo Zhuan, which mentions most of the notable figures from the Spring and Autumn period.[9] The name "Sun Wu" (孫武) does not appear in any text prior to theRecords of the Grand Historian,[10] and may have been a made-up descriptivecognomen meaning "the fugitive warrior" – the surname "Sun" can be glossed as the related term "fugitive" (xùn遜), while "Wu" is the ancient Chinese virtue of "martial, valiant" (wǔ武), which corresponds to Sun Tzu's role as the hero'sdoppelgänger in the story ofWu Zixu.[11] The only historical battle attributed to Sun Tzu, theBattle of Boju, has no record of him fighting in that battle.[12]
Skeptics cite possible historical inaccuracies and anachronisms in the text, and that the book was actually a compilation from different authors and military strategists. Attribution of the authorship ofThe Art of War varies among scholars and has included people and movements including Sun;Chu scholarWu Zixu; an anonymous author; a school of theorists inQi orWu;Sun Bin; and others.[13] Sun Bin appears to have been an actual person who was a genuine authority on military matters, and may have been the inspiration for the creation of the historical figure "Sun Tzu" through a form ofeuhemerism.[11] The name Sun Wu does appear in later sources such as theShiji and theWu Yue Chunqiu, but were written centuries after Sun Tzu's era.[14]
The use of the strips in other works, however, such asThe Methods of the Sima is considered proof of Sun Tzu's historical priority.[15] According to Ralph Sawyer, it is very likely Sun Tzu did exist and not only served as a general, but also wrote the core of the book that bears his name.[16] It is argued that there is a disparity between the large-scale wars and sophisticated techniques detailed in the text and the more primitive small-scale battles that many believe predominated in China during the 6th century BC. Against this, Sawyer argues that the teachings of Sun Wu were probably taught to succeeding generations in his family or a small school of disciples, which eventually included Sun Bin. These descendants or students may have revised or expanded upon certain points in the original text.[16]
The Art of War is traditionally ascribed to Sun Tzu. It presents aphilosophy of war for managing conflicts and winning battles. It is accepted as amasterpiece on strategy and has been frequently cited and referred to by generals and theorists since it was first published, translated, and distributed internationally.[20]
There are numerous theories concerning when the text was completed and concerning the identity of the author or authors, but archeological recoveries showThe Art of War had taken roughly its current form by at least the earlyHan period.[21] Because it is impossible to prove definitively when theArt of War was completed before this date, the differing theories concerning the work's author or authors and date of completion are unlikely to be completely resolved.[22] Some modern scholars believe that it contains not only the thoughts of its original author but also commentary and clarifications from later military theorists, such asLi Quan andDu Mu.[citation needed]
Of the military texts written before theunification of China andShi Huangdi's subsequentbook burning in the second century BC, six major works have survived. During the much laterSong dynasty, these six works were combined with aTang text into a collection called theSeven Military Classics. As a central part of that compilation,The Art of War formed the foundations of orthodox military theory in early modern China. Illustrating this point, the book was required reading to pass the tests for imperial appointment to military positions.[23]
Sun Tzu'sThe Art of War uses language that may be unusual in a Western text on warfare and strategy.[24] For example, the eleventh chapter states that a leader must be "serene and inscrutable" and capable of comprehending "unfathomable plans". The text contains many similar remarks that have long confused Western readers lacking an awareness of theEast Asian context. The meanings of such statements are clearer when interpreted in the context ofTaoist thought and practice.
The text outlines theories of battle, but also advocates diplomacy and the cultivation of relationships with other nations as essential to the health of a state.[20]
On 10 April 1972, theYinqueshan Han Tombs were accidentally unearthed by construction workers inShandong.[25][26]Scholars uncovered acollection of ancient texts written on unusually well-preservedbamboo slips. Among them wereThe Art of War andSun Bin'sMilitary Methods.[26] Although Han dynasty bibliographies noted the latter publication as extant and written by a descendant of Sun, it had previously been lost. The rediscovery of Sun Bin's work is regarded as extremely important by scholars, both because of Sun Bin's relationship to Sun Tzu and because of the work's addition to the body of military thought in Chinese late antiquity.[27]The discovery as a whole significantly expanded the body of survivingWarring States military theory. Sun Bin's treatise is the only known military text surviving from the Warring States period discovered in the twentieth century and bears the closest similarity toThe Art of War of all surviving texts.
Sun Tzu'sArt of War has influenced many notable figures. The Han dynasty historianSima Qian recounted that China's first historicalemperor,Qin'sShi Huangdi, considered the book invaluable in ending the time of theWarring States. In the twentieth century,Mao Zedong partially credited his 1949 victory overChiang Kai-shek and theKuomintang toThe Art of War. The work strongly influenced writings about warfare in Mao'sLittle Red Book, which further influenced communist insurgencies around the world.[28]
Ho Chi Minh translated the work for his Vietnamese officers to study. His generalVõ Nguyên Giáp was likewise an avid student and practitioner of Sun Tzu's ideas.[30][31][32]
Taoist rhetoric is a component incorporated in theArt of War. According to Steven C. Combs in "Sun-zi and theArt of War: The Rhetoric of Parsimony",[33] warfare is "used as a metaphor for rhetoric, and that both are philosophically based arts."[33] Combs writes: "Warfare is analogous to persuasion, as a battle for hearts and minds."[33] Combs compares Taoist andAristotelian rhetoric, notably for the differences in persuasion. Daoist rhetoric inThe Art of War warfare strategies is described as "peaceful and passive, favoring silence over speech".[33] This form of communication isparsimonious. Parsimonious behavior, which is highly emphasized inThe Art of War as avoiding confrontation and being spiritual in nature, shapes basic principles in Taoism.[34]
InSun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare, Mark McNeilly writes that a modern interpretation of Sun and his importance throughout Chinese history is critical in understanding China's push to become a superpower in the twenty-first century. Modern Chinese scholars explicitly rely on historical strategic lessons andThe Art of War in developing their theories, seeing a direct relationship between their modern struggles and those of China in Sun Tzu's time. There is a great perceived value in Sun Tzu's teachings and other traditional Chinese writers, which are used regularly in developing the strategies of the Chinese state and its leaders.[35]
Some admirers of Sun Tzu's work claim that it has relevance in competitive endeavors across the modern world beyond military strategy and warfare, including espionage, culture, governance, business, and sports.[36][37][38][39][40]
Sun Tzu has even been mentioned inpop culture. For example, in the 1987 filmWall Street, the protagonistGordon Gekko frequently cites passages fromThe Art of War as guiding principles for his aggressive trading techniques.[41]
^Galvany, Albert (October 2011). "Philosophy, biography, and Anecdote: On the Portrait of Sun Wu".Philosophy East and West.61 (4):630–646.doi:10.1353/pew.2011.0059.S2CID171035936.
^McNeilly, Mark R. (2015).Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare (updated ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 301.ISBN978-0-19-995785-9. Retrieved14 December 2022.Sun Tzu is not talking about 'news' here but about espionage affairs, or matters or plans relating to espionage.
Ames, Roger T. (1993).Sun-tzu: The Art of Warfare: The First English Translation Incorporating the Recently Discovered Yin-chʻüeh-shan Texts. New York: Ballantine Books.ISBN978-0-345-36239-1.
Gawlikowski, Krzysztof;Loewe, Michael (1993). "Sun tzu ping fa 孫子兵法". In Loewe, Michael (ed.).Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China; Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. pp. 446–455.ISBN978-1-55729-043-4.
McNeilly, Mark R. (2001),Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-513340-0.
Tao, Hanzhang; Wilkinson, Robert (1998),The Art of War, Wordsworth Editions,ISBN978-1-85326-779-6.
Tung, R. L. (2001), "Strategic Management Thought in East Asia", in Warner, Malcolm (ed.),Comparative Management:Critical Perspectives on Business and Management, vol. 3, Routledge.
