Spanish Filipinos
Hispano Filipinos

Total population
History Spanish colonial statistics: 5% of the Philippine population during the 1700s.[1][2] Present 2007-2024 statistics: 672,319HispanicFilipino diaspora[3][4] worldwide.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11]
Regions with significant populations
Diaspora
Spain	200,000[12] (2018 census)
Mexico	200,000[9] (2007)
Australia	128,693[13] (2021 census)
United States	0.4%[14] (2021 census)
Puerto Rico	91,620[15] (2014 census)
Canada	41,575[16] (2021 census)
Latin America	5,479[17][18] (2024 census)
Philippines	4,952[19] (2020 census)
Languages
Spanish (Philippine •Castilian) Spanish creole (Chavacano) English (Philippine) Filipino (Tagalog •Indigenous Philippine languages)
Religion
Christianity •Roman Catholic
Related ethnic groups
Spanish diaspora •Latin Americans • otherFilipinos (includingFilipino Mestizos)

Spanish diaspora

Flag of the Hispanic people
Regions with significant populations
Metro Manila,Bais City,Dumaguete City,Zamboanga City,Cebu City,Vigan,Iloilo City,Bauang
Languages
Spanish (Philippine),Filipino, otherPhilippine languages,English andChavacano
Religion
Roman Catholic

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SignificantSpanish diaspora
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Spanish Filipino orHispanic Filipino (Spanish:Español Filipino,Hispano Filipino,Tagalog:Kastílang Pilipino,Cebuano:Katsílà) are people of Spanish and Filipino heritage. The term may also includeFilipino mestizos of Spanish ancestry who identify withSpanish culture and may or may not speak the Spanish language.^[20] According to a present-day 2007-2024 international governmentcensus data provided by different countries around the globe shows that there are around 672,319 people with mixed WhiteSpanish and IndigenousFilipino ancestries living on different parts of the world, as well as 4,952 individuals who self-identified as ethnically Spanish^[21]in the Philippines.

Forming a part of theSpanish diaspora,^[20] the heritage of Spanish Filipinos may come recently from Spain, from descendants of the original Spanish settlers during theSpanish colonial period, or from Spain's colonies inLatin America (such asMexico).

Many of their communities in Spain, Mexico, the United States, Australia, Canada, Latin America and the Philippines trace their origin to the early settlers fromEurope andSoutheast Asia during the Spanish colonial period and in recent overseas migration in the 1900s.

In the Philippines depending on the specific provinces, in the late 1700s to early 1800s they formed as much as 19% in the capital city of Manila at formerly named Tondo province,^[1]: 539 and about 1.38% of the Ilocos region,^[2]: 31 2.17% of Cebu^[2]: 113 or 16.72% of Bataan^[1]: 539 and other parts of the country.

The Spanish population that settled in the Philippines during the colonial period were originally referred to as "Filipinos".^[22][23] Spaniards, Latin Americans and Spanish-speaking Filipinos are referred to by native Filipinos as "Kastila", a word for "Castilian" which means the region and language ofCastile, or an individual of Spanish heritage. Native Filipinos in historical terms are referred to by the Spaniards as "Indio" (a word for "Indian" orIndigenous people). Filipinos of Spanish backgrounds numbered at about 4,952 people, while Mestizo Filipinos of mixed native Filipino and European ancestry made up about 5% of the Philippines' population during the 1700s.^[1][2]

The abrupt decline of Spanish Filipinos as a percentage of the population is due to the events of thePhilippine Revolution during the Philippine Republic in the late 1800s, as Filipinos of Spanish heritage choose to identify themselves as pure native Filipino, as part of establishing a united national identity in the country,^[24] or some have relocated back to Spain, or have migrated to other countries during that period.

During and after the Philippine Revolution, the term "Filipino" included people of all nationalities and race, born in the Philippines.^[25][26][27]

Today, Hispanic Filipinos are found in all social classes worldwide, from upper wealthy to lower poor disadvantage backgrounds, and from high profiled individuals to ordinary unknown people. They have long integrated into the native communities living their lives as ordinary citizens. However most of the successful individuals are present in economics and business sectors in the Philippines and a few sources estimate companies which comprise a significant portion of the Philippine economy likeInternational Container Terminal Services Inc.,Manila Water,Integrated Micro-Electronics, Inc.,Ayala Land,Ynchausti y Compañia,Ayala Corporation,Aboitiz & Company,Union Bank of the Philippines,ANSCOR,Bank of the Philippine Islands,Globe Telecom,Solaire Resort & Casino, and Central Azucarera de La Carlota, to name but a few are owned by Hispanic Filipinos.^{[28][29][30][31][32]}

The history of the Spanish Philippines covers the period from 1521 to 1898, beginning with the arrival in 1521 of thePortuguese explorerFerdinand Magellan sailing for Spain, which heralded the period when the Philippines was anoverseas province of Spain, and ends with the outbreak of theSpanish–American War in 1898.

The Spanish discovery of theAmerican continent by theItalian explorerChristopher Columbus in 1492, an expedition sponsored by QueenIsabella I of Castille and KingFerdinand II of Aragon,^[33] laid the foundation of settlements and explorations in theNew World.^[34] Spain became the first European country to permanently colonized theAmerican continent in 1492.^[35]

In 1541, Spanish explorerRuy López de Villalobos was commissioned byAntonio de Mendoza, theviceroy ofNew Spain and first colonial administrator in the New World, to send an expedition to the Philippines to establish a larger Spanish presence there as a base for trade with theSpice Islands andChina and to extend Spanish control over theMoluccas in thePortuguese East Indies.^[36] The expedition ultimately failed, with Villalobos dying in a Portuguese prison onAmbon Island in 1546.

In 1564, conquistadors led byMiguel López de Legazpi, prompted the colonization of the Philippine Islands that lasted for 333 years. The Philippines was a former territory ofNew Spain until the grant of independence toMexico in 1821 necessitated the direct government from Spain of the Philippines from that year. Early Spanish settlers to the Philippines were mostly explorers, soldiers, government officials, religious missionaries, and among others, who were born in Spain or in Mexico called "Peninsulares" (Spanish migrants living in the colony). Their succeeding generation known as "Criollos" (Spaniards of pure White blood, born and raised in the colony) contributed to the population's development.^[37]

For centuries several hundreds of White Spaniards settled in the islands along with their families to start a new beginning in the New World, to take advantage of the rich and exotic resources the colony had to offer. Some of these individuals married or inter-bred with the indigenous Filipino population while most married only other Spaniards. Their descendance that consisted of "Criollos" or "Insulares" and "Mestizos" (those of mixed-blood individuals) became part of the island's indigenous society; some became town officers and farmers, and others became ordinary citizens.

Government officials and those of high ranks were granted withhaciendas (plantation estates) by the Spanish government. In some provinces like,Vigan,Iloilo,Cebu,Pampanga, andZamboanga, The Spanish government encouraged foreign merchants from Southeast Asia and the Asian continent to trade in the colony, along with the European and indigenous population, but they were not given certain privileges such as ownership of land.

Contacts with White Europeans, social intercourse between foreign merchants, and indigenous people resulted in a new ethnic group. These group were called Mestizos (mixed-race individuals), who were born from intermarriages from White European Spaniards and indigenousAustronesian-speaking Filipino natives. Some of their descendants emerged later as an influential part of the ruling class called the "Principalía" (Nobility) class.

The Spanish implemented incentives to deliberately entangle the various races together in order to stop rebellions.^[38][39][40] According to a historical colonial conversation that was published, stated by a government official explains:"It is needful to encourage public instruction in all ways possible, permit newspapers subject to a liberal censure, to establish in Manila a college of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy: in order to break down the barriers that divide the races, and amalgamate them all into one. For that purpose, the Spaniards of the country, the Chinese mestizos, and the Filipinos shall be admitted with perfect equality as cadets of the military corps; the personal-service tax shall be abolished, or an equal and general tax shall be imposed, to which all the Spaniards shall be subject. This last plan appears to me more advisable, as the poll-tax is already established, and it is not opportune to make a trial of new taxes when it is a question of allowing the country to be governed by itself. Since the annual tribute is unequal, the average shall be taken and shall be fixed, consequently, at fifteen or sixteen reals per whole tribute, or perhaps one peso fuerte annually from each adult tributary person. This regulation will produce an increase in the revenue of 200,000 or 300,000 pesos fuertes, and this sum shall be set aside to give the impulse for the amalgamation of the races, favoring crossed marriages by means of dowries granted to the single women in the following manner. To a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Filipino shall be given 100 pesos; to a Filipino woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 100 pesos; to a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Spaniard, 1,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 2,000 pesos; to a Filipino woman who marries a Spaniard, 2,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Filipino chief, 3,000 or 4,000 pesos. Some mestizo and Filipino alcaldes-mayor of the provinces shall be appointed. It shall be ordered that when a Filipino chief goes to the house of a Spaniard, he shall seat himself as the latter's equal. In a word, by these and other means, the idea that they and the Castilians are two kinds of distinct races shall be erased from the minds of the natives, and the families shall become related by marriage in such manner that when free of the Castilian dominion should any exalted Filipinos try to expel or enslave our race, they would find it so interlaced with their own that their plan would be practically impossible".^[41]

Mexicans,Indigenous Americans and some Black Africans were also brought to the Philippines to work onplantation settlements, as slave workers or settlers working in the colony. Between 1565 and 1815, both Filipinos and people from Latin America and Spain sailed to, and from the Philippines in theManila galleon trade toAcapulco, assisting Spain in its trade on the colony.

In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo delas islas Filipinas"^[1][2] compiled a census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (Which represented an average family of seven to ten children^[42] and two parents, per tribute)^[43] and came upon the following statistics:

The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province^[1]: 539 (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%,^[1]: 539 Cavite at 13%,^[1]: 539 Laguna 2.28%,^[1]: 539 Batangas 3%,^[1]: 539 Bulacan 10.79%,^[1]: 539 Bataan 16.72%,^[1]: 539 Ilocos 1.38%,^[2]: 31 Pangasinan 3.49%,^[2]: 31 Albay 1.16%,^[2]: 54 Cebu 2.17%,^[2]: 113 Samar 3.27%,^[2]: 113Iloilo 1%,^[2]: 113 Capiz 1%,^[2]: 113Bicol 20%,^[44] andZamboanga 40%.^[44] According to the 1893 data in the Archdiocese of Manila which administers much of Luzon under it, about 10% of the population was then Spanish-Filipino.^[1]: 539 Overall the whole Philippines, even including the provinces with no Spanish settlement, as summed up, the average percentage of Spanish Filipino tributes amount to 5% of the total population.^[1][2]

A 2018-2020 Census research data shows that it may be incomplete as there was a large span of time ever since racial statistics were recorded in Spanish censuses and the new Philippine censuses does not account for racial differences, thereby ignoring foreign ancestry that has beencompounding in time. To address this, scientists have undergone Anthropology studies of Filipinos to measure ethnic ratios in the population. Scientist, Matthew C. Go, in a Trihybrid Ancestry Variation Analysis approach to Admixture in Filipinos, published a study wherein it was discovered that upon exhuming the remains around the public cemetery of the "Manila North Cemetery" as well as other public cemeteries across the Philippines, and practicingforensic anthropology on them, Matthew C. Go estimated that 71% of the mean amount, among the samples exhumed, have attribution to Asian descent while 7% is attributable to European descent.^[45] Filipinos have significantly less Asian ancestry compared to other Asian nationalities like the Koreans who are 90% Asian, Japanese at 96%, Thai at 93%, and Vietnamese at 84%.^[45]

Nevertheless, a 2019 Anthropology Study by Beatrix Dudzik, while using skeletons collated by theUniversity of the Philippines and sampled from all across the Philippines, thus published in the Journal of Human Biology, using physical anthropology, estimated that, 72.7% of Filipinos are Asian, 12.7% of Filipinos can be classified as Hispanic, 7.3% as Indigenous American, African at 4.5% and European at 2.7%.^[46] However, this is only according to an interpretation of the data wherein the reference groups, which were attributed to the Filipino samples; for the Hispanic category, wereMexican-Americans, and the reference groups for the European, African, and Indigenous American, categories, were:White Americans,Black Americans, andNative Americans from the USA, while the Asian reference groups were sourced from Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese origins.^[46]

In contrast, a different anthropology study using Morphoscopic ancestry estimates in Filipino crania using multivariate probit regression models by J. T. Hefner, published on year 2020, while analyzing Historic and Modern samples of skeletons in the Philippines, paint a different picture,^[47] in that, when the reference group for "Asian" was Thailand (Southeast Asians) rather than Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese; and the reference group for "Hispanic" wereColombians (South Americans) rather than Mexicans,^[47] the combined historical and modern sample results for Filipinos, yielded the following ratios: Asian at 48.6%, African at 32.9%, and only a small portion classifying as either European at 12.9%, and finally for Hispanic at 5.7%.^[47]

These are historicalSpanish terms^[48] used to identify the different types of names given to the people living in the colony.

They are:^[49][50]

• "Español" - A pure White European person from Spain.
• "Peninsulares" - A pure White Spaniard born in Spain but is also a settler and a citizen, living on the islands.
• "Criollo"/"Insulares" - A White Filipino of pure Spanish ancestry, born on and a citizen of the islands.
• "Mestizo"/"Mulatto" - A native Filipino or an Indigenous American Indian person of mixed Spanish ancestry, and an African person of mixed Spanish descent.
• "Indio" - A nativeFilipino or anIndigenous American Indian person, or an individual belonging to a tribal group, native to the islands.
• "Negrito"/"Negro" - A indigenous Black Filipino person, and an African person brought to the colony to work on plantation.
• "Islas Filipinas" - The name of the islands.
• "Felipinas" - The name given to the islands in 1543 by explorerRuy López de Villalobos in honor of PrinceFelipe II, who later became King of Spain in 1556. This name initially referred to just the islands ofLeyte andSamar. It was later on expanded to include the entire archipelago.^[51]
• "Hispano América" - The Spanish colonies in theAmericas.

This category is about a term used to identify the different types of Filipino ethnic groups living on the islands.

They are:^[52]

• "White Filipino" - People ofWhite European, White American,White Latin American, White Middle Eastern and other White ethnic backgrounds living on the islands.
• "Hispanic Filipino" - People of mixed native Filipino and Spanish or Latino ancestry, or a Spanish-speaking Filipino, Hispanicized Filipino, Peninsular, Criollo, or a person of Latin American descent living on the islands.
• "Mestizo Filipino" - A Filipino person of mixed White ancestry.
• "Native Filipino" - People of un-mixed or aFilipino person of pure ancestry from the islands.
• "Oriental Filipino" - People from anotherAsian background living on the islands, or a Filipino mixed with other oriental backgrounds, or a person ofSouth Asian descent living in the islands.
• "Black Filipino" - People ofBlack African, African American andBlack Latin American backgrounds, living on the islands, or a Filipino person of mixed Black ancestry.
• "Polynesian Filipino" - People ofPolynesian backgrounds living on the islands, or a Filipino person of mixed Polynesian ancestry.
• "US/Native American Filipino" - A person of White American-native descent, living on the islands.

The majority of Spaniards, Latinos and Hispanic Filipinos areChristians, with most adhering toCatholicism.^[53]

Spanish,^[54] Spanish creole (Chavacano),English,Tagalog and other IndigenousFilipino languages are spoken in their community.

Philippine Spanish (Spanish:Español Filipino, Castellano Filipino) is aSpanish dialect and variant of theSpanish language spoken in the Philippines. Philippine Spanish is very similar toMexican Spanish due to the contribution of grammar and vocabulary spoken by Mexican settlers in the country, during theGalleon trade. A constitution ratified in 1987 designatedFilipino and English as official languages.^[55] Also, under this Constitution, Spanish, together with Arabic, was designated an optional and voluntary language.^[56]

Spanish is now spoken mostly by Hispanic Filipinos, educated Filipinos and Filipinos who chose to speak the language. Most Spanish Filipinos speak Spanish as their first, second or third language as they have shifted to communicating in English and Tagalog and/or other indigenous Filipino languages in the public sphere.

Jaime Augusto Zóbel de Ayala

Enrique K. Razon

Jon Ramón Aboitiz

Prominent Philippine billionaire businessmen^[57]are descendance ofWhite Europeans (Spanish) "Peninsulares" and "Criollo (Insulares)"^[58]settlers.

The Hispanic communities in the Philippines play an important part of the society in both economic and traditional identity of the people.^[59]

The most successful individuals are found in the upper-class society, most of whom are highly educated and are involved in business and economic sectors.^[60]

They contribute to some of the Philippines's most important investments in infrastructures such as telecommunication, technology, electricity, water, transport, banking, land economy, tourism, sport and entertainment, shipping trade and marketing.^[61]

In 1899, theFirst Philippine Republic promulgated a constitution that designated Spanish as the nation's official language.^[62] The Philippines was the only Spanish speaking country in Asia, from the beginning of colonial rule in the 1500s until the first half of the 20th century.

It held official status for over four centuries and was redesignated as an optional language in 1987. ThePhilippine government under the leadership ofCorazon Aquino,^[63]deliberately suspended the use of Spanish language for some unknown political^[64]reasons, likely influenced by the AmericanBlack Legend.^[65][66] Discourteous and hypocritical Filipino politicians influenced by third world Southeast Asian^[67] corruption, political agendas, a failed government and economic system, extreme poverty and years of bleak uncertain future that still surrounds the Philippines^[68] to this day, led to thePeople Power Revolution in 1986. The governmentConstitution of the Philippines without conducting a proper western-style election protocol, was controversially changed in 1987.

This disrupted the development of the language, which led the Philippines to be an incomplete Spanish-speaking country.

Tagalog and English remained as the official languages of the country as they have been in previous constitution. In 1987, the Tagalog language which was called Filipino was promoted as the main language, a language that was chosen by the former Philippine presidentManuel L. Quezon in 1935, who himself was of mixed Spanish ancestry.

Spanish still remains and continues to be spoken by educated Filipinos, Spanish Filipinos and native Filipinos who chose to speak the language in public. However, it is mostly spoken and used in universities and in Hispanic communities. The Philippines is a member of theLatin Union where the language is used for education in theInstituto Cervantes, in the capital city of Manila.^[69]

In 2010, the former Philippine presidentGloria Macapagal Arroyo, a fluent Spanish speaker,^[70] re-instated the language as a compulsory subject to be taught in schools and universities.^[71] One of the reasons of change was that she wanted to the Philippines to return to traditional ways of life, be bilingual, competitive, wealthy and respected, and able to compete in the world economy. The other was for global employment demands such as in thecall center andbusiness process outsourcing industries.

Most Spanish-speaking Filipinos also use English in the public sphere and may also speak Tagalog and other Philippine languages. In addition,Chavacano (a creole language based largely in the Spanish vocabulary) is spoken in the southern Philippines and forms the majority ofZamboanga Peninsula andBasilan region.

Hispanic Filipinos share some similarities to cultural practices from people in Latin America and Spain, including a shared history, tradition, names, arts and literature, music, food, religion and language.^[72]

They have also taken some influences from the United States,^[73] as evidenced by their admiration for Anglo-AmericanPopular culture.

TheNational Hispanic Heritage Month is celebrated in the United States by individuals of Spanish Heritage.^[74] While in Spain, theRunning of the Bulls is a traditional celebration.^[75]

Cover of theDoctrina Christiana featuringSaint Dominic with the book's full title. Woodcut, c. 1590.

Pages of theDoctrina Christiana, an early Christian book inSpanish andTagalog. The book containedLatin andBaybayin suyat scripts (1593).

Philippine literature in Spanish ("Literatura Filipina en Español") is a body of original Hispanic literature made by Filipino writers in theSpanish language which was first published in 1593 by Spanish Roman Catholic priest.^[76]

Today, this corpus is the third largest in the whole corpus ofPhilippine literature (Philippine literature in Filipino being the first, followed byPhilippine literature in English). It is slightly larger than Philippine literature in vernacular languages. However, because of the very few additions to it in the past 30 years, it is expected that the latter will soon overtake its rank.

The most popular written Hispanic literature in the Philippines isNoli Me Tángere, a novel written byJosé Rizal.^[77]

Hispanic art explores the rich history and story of the ancient world, combined with colonialism, religion^[78] and contemporary way of life.^[79]

Hispanic music is a blend of traditional Europeanfolk music mixed with Indigenous American-Indian, Indigenous Filipino and African sounds, together with contemporary European, Latino and Anglo-American genre.^[80] Films, hip-hop, pop, dance, rock and heavy metal are also popular.^[81]

Spanish cuisine is traditionally of European origin. Filipino cuisine is a blend of European and Asian influences.^[82]

Football is the most watched and played sport in Spain and in Latin America.^[83][84] In the Philippines football is also popular particularly among the Hispanic communities and fans of the sport.

Tennis,basketball,beach volleyball,volleyball,baseball,boxing,UFC,cycling,motor sports andwater sports are also widely appreciated in the Spanish community.^[85][86]

The game of basketball is one of Spain's most popular sports and is second only to football, played at a professional level, while in the Philippines it is considered its national sport.

Traditional and cultural sports such asbullfighting were popular among Spaniards and in Latin America in the early 1900s, but have recently declined in popularity in the 2000s due to the violent nature of the sport.^[87]

Enrique Iglesias
Spaniard

Spanish and Latin pop music singer

Paulino Alcántara
Spaniard

Spanish footballer

Jaime Augusto Zobel de Ayala
Filipino

Philippine businessman

Juan Álvarez^[88]
Mexican

President of Mexico

Carlos Loyzaga
Filipino

Philippine basketballer

Pilita Corrales
Filipina

Philippine singer

Isabel Preysler
Spaniard

Spanish journalist

Marian Rivera^[89]
Filipina

Philippine actress

Julio Iglesias Jr.
Spaniard

Spanish singer

Celeste Cortesi
Italian Filipina

Philippine beauty pageant

A list of famous Hispanics from around the world who are part Filipino heritage, and are internationally or domestically recognized for their status and achievement.^[90][91][92]

Sport

• Paulino Alcántara - Football
• Eduardo Teus - Football
• Juan Torena - Football
• Manuel Amechazurra - Football
• Gregorio Querejeta - Football
• Nick Rimando - Football
• Saúl Berjón^[93] - Football
• Santiago Rublico - Football
• Carlos Loyzaga - Basketball
• Leylah Fernandez^[94] - Tennis

Art

• Juan Luna - Artist

Music

• Enrique Iglesias - Singer
• Joe Bataan - Singer
• Julio Iglesias Jr. - Singer
• Asia Nitollano - Singer
• Pilita Corrales - Singer
• Chanty - Singer
• Jasmine V - Singer
• Cassie Ventura - Singer

Films

• Gloria Romero - Actress
• Delia Razon - Actress
• Amalia Fuentes - Actress
• Marian Rivera - Actress
• Fernando Poe Jr. - Actor
• Eddie Garcia - Actor
• Jaime Fabregas - Actor
• Janine Gutierrez - Actress and fashion model
• Tamara Falcó - Aristocracy and TV personality

Fashion

• Arianny Celeste - Model
• Katarina Rodriguez - Beauty pageant
• Stella Araneta - Beauty pageant
• Gloria Diaz - Beauty pageant
• Celeste Cortesi - Beauty pageant

Literature

• George Santayana^[95] - Writer
• Fernando María Guerrero - Writer
• Lourdes Castrillo Brillantes - Writer

Economics

• Enrique K. Razon - Businessman
• Zóbel de Ayala family - Business family
• Jaime Augusto Zobel de Ayala - Businessman
• Jon Ramon Aboitiz - Businessman

Journalism

• Isabel Preysler - Journalist
• Dyan Castillejo - Journalist

Religion

• José María of Manila - Catholic saint
• Juan de Plasencia - Priest
• Manuel Rojo del Río y Vieyra - Priest

Politics

• José Rizal - National hero
• Marcelo Azcárraga - Prime minister
• Emilio Aguinaldo - President and Revolutionary leader
• Juan Álvarez^[96] - President
• Isidoro Montes de Oca - Revolutionary leader
• Alejandro Gómez Maganda - Governor
• Felipe Calderón - Revolutionary leader
• Chito Gascon - Commission on Human Rights
• Jorge Moragas^[97] - Chief of Staff of the Spanish Prime Minister
• Gloria Macapagal Arroyo - President
• Manuel L. Quezon - President
• Marcelo Fernán - Chief Justice / National hero

• Philippines–Spain relations
• Spanish people of Filipino ancestry
• Immigration to Spain
• Mexican settlement in the Philippines
• Filipino immigration to Mexico

• The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy, Kirkpatrick Sale (1990–1991)
• Conquistadors: The Rise and Fall (Documentary Series, 2023)
• Antonio García, Spanish Settlers in the Philippines 1571–1599, Universidad de Córdoba España, www.uco.es
• Francisco de Sande, Juan de Ovando, "Spanish Settlers in the Philippines (1571-1599)," President of the Council to the Indies New Spain, 1574

• Ethnicity in the Philippines (2020) Census of Population and Housing Republic of the Philippines - Philippine Statistic Authority, www.psa.gov.ph
• Filipino Migration in Spain (Province of Origin) Office of the President of the Philippines, www.cfo.gov.ph
• Filipino Migration in Spain (Overview) Office of the President of the Philippines, www.cfo.gov.ph
• Spanish Settlers in the Philippines (1571-1599) Universidad de Córdoba España, www.uco.es
• The genetic legacy of the Manila Galleon Trade in Mexico The Royal Society Publishing, www.royalsocietypublishing.org
• Ethnohistory - Philippine Indios in the Service of the Empire: Indigenous Soldiers and Contingent Loyalty, 1600-1700 University of Cambridge United Kingdom, www.api.repository.cam.ac.uk

• Ethnic groups in the Philippines
• Hispanic and Latino
• Filipino people of Spanish descent
• European diaspora in the Philippines
• Latin American diasporas
• South American diaspora in the Philippines
• Spanish diaspora by country
• Spanish Philippines

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