Almost all of the institution's 30 million annual visitors[13] are admitted without charge,[4] the exception being visitors toCooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum in New York City, which charges an admissions fee.[14] The Smithsonian's annual budget is around $1.25 billion, with two-thirds coming from annual federal appropriations.[15] Other funding comes from the institution'sendowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, and licensing revenue.[7] As of 2023,[update] the institution's endowment had a total value of about $2.4 billion.[16]
The institute proposed a number of undertakings. These included the study of plant life and the creation of a botanical garden on theNational Mall, an examination of the country's mineral production, improvement in the management and care of livestock, and the writing of a topographical and statistical history of the United States. Reports were to be published periodically to share this knowledge with the greater public, but due to a lack of funds, this initially did not occur. The institute first met in Blodget's Hotel, later in the Treasury Department and City Hall, before being assigned a permanent home in 1824 in the Capitol building.
Beginning in 1825, weekly sittings were arranged during sessions of Congress for the reading of scientific and literary productions, but this was continued for only a short time, as the number attending declined rapidly. Eighty-five communications by 26 people were made to Congress during the entire life of the society, with more than a half relating to astronomy or mathematics. Among all the activities planned by the institute, only a few were actually implemented. Two were the establishment of a botanical garden, and a museum that was designed to have a national and permanent status. The former occupied space where the presentBotanic Garden sits.
The museum contained specimens of zoology, botany, archeology, fossils, etc., some of which were passed on to the Smithsonian Institution after its formation. The institute's charter expired in 1838, but its spirit lived on in theNational Institution, founded in 1840. With the mission to "promote science and the useful arts, and to establish a national museum of natural history," this organization continued to press Congress to establish a museum that would be structured in terms that were very similar to those finally incorporated into the founding of the Smithsonian Institution. Its work helped to develop an underlying philosophy that pushed for the pursuit and development of scientific knowledge that would benefit the nation, and edify its citizens at the same time.[17]
The British scientistJames Smithson (1765–1829) left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford. When Hungerford died childless in 1835,[18] the estate passed "to the United States of America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an Establishment for the increase & diffusion of knowledge among men", in accordance with Smithson's will.[19] Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1, 1836.[20] The American diplomatRichard Rush was dispatched to England by PresidentAndrew Jackson to collect the bequest. Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960gold sovereigns. This is approximately $500,000 at the time, which is equivalent to $15,000,000 in 2024 or equivalent to £12,000,000 in 2023. However, when considering the GDP at the time it may be more comparable to $220 million in the year 2007.[21][22]
Once the money was in hand, eight years of congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithson's rather vague mandate "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge."[20][22] The money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas, which soon defaulted. After heated debate, Massachusetts representative (and former president)John Quincy Adams persuaded Congress to restore the lost funds with interest[23] and, despite designs on the money for other purposes, convinced his colleagues to preserve it for an institution of science and learning.[24] Finally, on August 10, 1846, PresidentJames K. Polk signed the legislation that established the Smithsonian Institution as a trust instrumentality of the United States, to be administered by a Board of Regents and a secretary of the Smithsonian.[20][25]
Though the Smithsonian's first secretary,Joseph Henry, wanted the institution to be a center for scientific research,[26] it also became the depository for various Washington and U.S. government collections.[27] TheUnited States Exploring Expedition by theU.S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842.[28] The voyage amassed thousands of animal specimens, anherbarium of 50,000 plant specimens, and diverse shells and minerals, tropical birds, jars of seawater, andethnographic artifacts from theSouth Pacific Ocean.[28] These specimens and artifacts became part of the Smithsonian collections,[29] as did those collected by several military and civilian surveys of theAmerican West, including theMexican Boundary Survey andPacific Railroad Surveys, which assembled manyNative American artifacts andnatural history specimens.[30]
In 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation; in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research.[31] The institution became a magnet for youngscientists from 1857 to 1866, who formed a group called theMegatherium Club.[32] The Smithsonian played a critical role as the US partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with theAcademy of Sciences of Cuba.[33]
The Smithsonian Institution area around theNational Mall.
Construction began on theSmithsonian Institution Building ("the Castle") in 1849. Designed by architectJames Renwick Jr., its interiors were completed by general contractor Gilbert Cameron. The building opened in 1855.[34]
TheNational Museum of Natural History opened in June 1911 to similarly accommodate the Smithsonian's United States National Museum, which had previously been housed in the Castle and then the Arts and Industries Building.[37] This structure was designed by the D.C. architectural firm ofHornblower & Marshall.[38]
WhenDetroitphilanthropistCharles Lang Freer donated his private collection to the Smithsonian and funds to build the museum to hold it (which was named theFreer Gallery), it was among the Smithsonian's first major donations from a private individual.[39] The gallery opened in 1923.[40]
In 2011, the Smithsonian undertook its first-ever capital fundraising campaign.[57] The $1.5 billion effort raised $1 billion at the three-year mark. Smithsonian officials made the campaign public in October 2014 in an effort to raise the remaining $500 million. More than 60,000 individuals and organizations donated money to the campaign by the time it went public.[58] This included 192 gifts of at least $1 million.[58] Members of the boards of directors of various Smithsonian museums donated $372 million.[58] The Smithsonian said that funds raised would go toward completion of theNational Museum of African American History and Culture building, and renovations of theNational Air and Space Museum,National Museum of American History, and theRenwick Gallery.[58] A smaller amount of funds would go to educational initiatives and digitization of collections.[58] As of September 2017, the Smithsonian claimed to have raised $1.79 billion, with three months left in the formal campaign calendar.[59]
The Smithsonian has close ties with 168 other museums in 39 states,Panama, andPuerto Rico.[62] These museums are known as Smithsonian Affiliated museums. Collections of artifacts are given to these museums in the form of long-term loans. The Smithsonian also has a large number of traveling exhibitions, operated through the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service (SITES).[86] In 2008, 58 of these traveling exhibitions went to 510 venues across the country.[62]
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Smithsonian collections include 156 million artworks, artifacts, and specimens. TheNational Museum of Natural History houses 145 million of these specimens and artifacts, which are mostly animals preserved in formaldehyde. The Collections Search Center has 9.9 million digital records available online. The Smithsonian Institution Libraries hold 2 million library volumes. Smithsonian Archives hold 156,830 cubic feet (4,441 m3) of archival material.[87][88]
The Smithsonian Institution has many categories of displays that can be visited at the museums. In 1912, First LadyHelen Herron Taft donated her inauguration gown to the museum to begin theFirst Ladies' Gown display at theNational Museum of American History,[89] one of the Smithsonian's most popular exhibits.[90] The museum displays treasures such as theStar-Spangled Banner, the stove pipe hat that was worn by PresidentAbraham Lincoln, the ruby slippers worn by Judy Garland inThe Wizard Of Oz, and the original Teddy Bear that was named after PresidentTheodore Roosevelt.[91] In 2016, the Smithsonian's Air & Space museum curators restored the large modelEnterprise from the originalStar Trek TV series.[92]
Following international debates about thedecolonisation of museums and the legal and moral justifications of their acquisitions, the Smithsonian adopted a new "ethical returns policy" on April 29, 2022. This will permit thedeaccession and restitution of items collected under circumstances considered unethical by contemporary standards and thus places moral over legal arguments. A month before, the Smithsonian'sNational Museum of African Art had announced the planned return of most of its 39Benin Bronzes toNigeria,[93] as well as of other cultural items toTurkey.[94]
On October 11, 2022, Benin Bronzes from theNational Museum of African Art, as well as theNational Gallery of Art, were formally returned to Nigerian cultural officials in a ceremony held in Washington D.C. The Nigerian Minister of Information and Culture,Lai Mohammed, and Prince Aghatise Erediauwa, representing theOba of Benin Kingdom, spoke at the ceremony. Mohammed said the "decision to return the timeless artworks is worth emulating."[95]
In February 2020, the Smithsonian made 2.8 million digital items available to the public under aCreative Commons Zero Public Domain Dedication, with a commitment to release further items in the future.[96]
In 1997, the Smithsonian Latino Center was created as a way to recognize Latinos across the Smithsonian Institution. The primary purpose of the center is to place Latino contributions to the arts, history, science, and national culture across the Smithsonian's museums and research centers.[106]
The center is a division of the Smithsonian Institution.[107] As of May 2016, the center is run by an executive director, Eduardo Díaz.[108]
At the time of its creation, the Smithsonian Institution had other entities dedicated to other minority groups: National Museum of the American Indian, Freer-Sackler Gallery for Asian Arts and Culture, African Art Museum, and the National Museum of African-American Heritage and Culture.[109]
The opening of the center was prompted, in part, by the publishing of a report called "Willful Neglect: The Smithsonian and U.S. Latinos".[109]
According to documents obtained byThe Washington Post, when former Latino Center executive directorPilar O'Leary first took the job, the center faced employees who had "serious performance issues". No performance plans existed for the staff and unfulfilled financial obligations to sponsors existed. The website's quality was poor, and the center did not have a public affairs manager, a programs director, adequate human resources support, or cohesive mission statement.[109]
After difficult times in the first few years, the center improved. According to the Smithsonian, the center "support[s] scholarly research, exhibitions, public and educational programs, web-based content and virtual platforms, and collections and archives. [It] also manage[s] leadership and professional development programs for Latino youth, emerging scholars and museum professionals."[106] Today, the website features a high-tech virtual museum including self-guided virtual tours of past and present exhibits.[110]
The Smithsonian Latino Center's Young Ambassadors Program (YAP) is a program within the Latino Center that reaches out to Latino high school students with the goal of encouraging them to become leaders in arts, sciences, and the humanities.[111]
Students selected for the program travel to Washington, D.C. for an "enrichment seminar" that lasts approximately five days. Afterwards, students return to their communities to serve in a paid, one-month internship.[107]
Pilar O'Leary launched the program when she served as executive director of the Smithsonian Latino Center.[112] According to the Latino Center, O'Leary told the press in 2007: "Our goal is to help our Young Ambassadors become the next generation of leaders in the arts and culture fields. This program encourages students to be proud of their roots and learn more about their cultural heritage to inspire them to educate the public in their own communities about how Latinos are enriching America's cultural fabric."[107]
The institution publishesSmithsonian magazine monthly andAir & Space magazine bimonthly.Smithsonian was the result of Secretary of the SmithsonianS. Dillon Ripley asking the retired editor ofLife magazineEdward K. Thompson to produce a magazine "about things in which the Smithsonian Institution is interested, might be interested or ought to be interested".[113] Another Secretary of the Smithsonian, Walter Boyne, foundedAir & Space.[114][115]
The organization publishes under the imprints Smithsonian Institution Press, Smithsonian Books, and Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press.[116][117][118]
The Smithsonian makes a number of awards to acknowledge and support meritorious work.
TheJames Smithson Medal, the Smithsonian Institution's highest award, was established in 1965 and is given in recognition of exceptional contributions to art, science, history, education, and technology.
The James Smithson Bicentennial Medal, established in 1965, is given to persons who have made distinguished contributions to the advancement of areas of interest to the Smithsonian.
TheHodgkins Medal, established in 1893, is awarded for important contributions to the understanding of the physical environment.
The Henry Medal, established in 1878, is presented to individuals in recognition of their distinguished service, achievements or contributions to the prestige and growth of the Smithsonian Institution.
The president's 2011 budget proposed just under $800 million in support for the Smithsonian, slightly increased from previous years. Institution exhibits are free of charge, though in 2010 theDeficit Commission recommended admission fees.[122][123]
As approved byCongress on August 10, 1846, the legislation that created the Smithsonian Institution called for the creation of a Board of Regents to govern and administer the organization.[121] This seventeen-member board meets at least four times a year and includes asex officio members thechief justice of the United States and thevice president of the United States. The nominal head of the institution is thechancellor, an office which has traditionally been held by the chief justice. In September 2007, the board created the position of chair of the Board of Regents, a position currently held byRisa Lavizzo-Mourey.[124]
Other members of the Board of Regents are three members of theU.S. House of Representatives appointed by thespeaker of the House; three members of the Senate, appointed by thepresidentpro tempore of the Senate; and nine citizen members, nominated by the board and approved by the Congress in a joint resolution signed by the president of the United States.[125] Regents who are senators or representatives serve for the duration of their elected terms, while citizen Regents serve a maximum of two six-year terms. Regents are compensated on a part-time basis.
Thechief executive officer (CEO) of the Smithsonian is the secretary, who is appointed by the Board of Regents. The secretary also serves as secretary to the Board of Regents but is not a voting member of that body. The secretary of the Smithsonian has theprivilege of the floor at theUnited States Senate. On September 18, 2013, Secretary G. Wayne Clough announced he would retire in October 2014. The Smithsonian Board of Regents said it asked regent John McCarter, Jr., to lead a search committee.[126] On March 10, 2014, the Smithsonian Board selectedDavid Skorton, a physician and president ofCornell University, as the thirteenth secretary of the Smithsonian. Skorton took the reins of the institution on July 1, 2015.[127] Upon Skorton's announced resignation in 2019, the Board selectedLonnie Bunch III, the founding director of the Smithsonian'sNational Museum of African American History and Culture, as the fourteenth secretary.[128]
In November 2007,The Washington Post reported internal criticism has been raised regarding the institution's handling of the exhibit on the Arctic. According to documents and e-mails, the exhibit and its associated presentation were edited at high levels to add "scientific uncertainty" regarding the nature and impact ofglobal warming on theArctic. Acting Secretary of the SmithsonianCristián Samper was interviewed by thePost, and claimed the exhibit was edited because it contained conclusions that went beyond what could be proven by contemporaryclimatology.[160] The Smithsonian is now a participant in theU.S. Global Change Research Program.[161]
The Smithsonian Institution provides access to its image collections for educational, scholarly, and nonprofit uses. Commercial uses are generally restricted unless permission is obtained. Smithsonian images fall into different copyright categories; some are protected by copyright, many are subject to license agreements or other contractual conditions, and some fall into the public domain, such as those prepared by Smithsonian employees as part of their official duties. The Smithsonian's terms of use for its digital content, including images, are set forth on the Smithsonian Web site.[162][163]
In April 2006, the institution entered into an agreement of "first refusal" rights for its vastsilent andpublic domain film archives withShowtime Networks, mainly for use on theSmithsonian Channel, a network created from this deal. Critics contend this agreement effectively gives Showtime control over the film archives, as it requires filmmakers to obtain permission from the network to use extensive amounts of film footage from the Smithsonian archives.[164]
On March 27, 2025, PresidentDonald Trump signed anexecutive order that accused theprior administration of advancing a "corrosive ideology". Titled "Restoring Truth and Sanity to American History", the order directed Vice PresidentJD Vance, a member of the Smithsonian Board of Regents, to rid the institution of "improper, divisive, or anti-American" ideology. The order is part of theTrump administration's efforts to eliminate federal funding of actions and ideas with which it does not agree.[165][166][167] The order cited the exhibitionThe Shape of Power: Stories of Race and American Sculpture, declaring it to be an example of a "harmful and oppressive" shift in the narrative portraying American values, specifically for promoting the idea that "race is not a biological reality but a social construct, stating 'race is a human invention'" — a statement contrary to generally accepted scientific understanding.[168]
^Barlow, William (1847).The Smithsonian Institution, "for the Increase and Diffusion of Knowledge Among Men": An Address on the Duties of Government, in Reference Chiefly to Public Instruction: with the Outlines of a Plan for the Application of the Smithsonian Fund to that Object. B. R. Barlow.
^"National Collections".Smithsonian National Collections Dashboard. RetrievedSeptember 13, 2024.
^Leaf, Jesse (March 13, 2007).The Everything Family Guide to Washington D.C.: All the Best Hotels, Restaurants, Sites, and Attractions. Everything Books.ISBN978-1-4405-2411-0.: 57
^Kurin, Richard (October 29, 2013).The Smithsonian's History of America in 101 Objects Deluxe. Penguin.ISBN978-0-698-15520-6.
^Smithson, James (October 23, 1826)."Last Will and Testament".Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian Scrapbook: Letters, Diaries and Photographs from the Smithsonian Archives. Archived fromthe original on August 24, 2011. RetrievedOctober 4, 2012.
^Ewing, Heather.The Lost World of James Smithson: Science, Revolution, and the Birth of the Smithsonian. pp. 323–24, 330, 409. Ewing notes that it would be the equivalent of over $10 million today, using one index, but using a per-capita share of GDP, it would be the equivalent of over $220 million. It was close to the total ofHarvard University's endowment at that point, which had accumulated for nearly 200 years by the 1830s and was not the result of a single gift, as Smithson's was.
^Orosz, Joel J. (June 28, 2002).Curators and Culture: The Museum Movement in America, 1740-1870. University of Alabama Press.ISBN978-0-8173-1204-6.: 155
^Orosz, Joel J. (June 28, 2002).Curators and Culture: The Museum Movement in America, 1740-1870. University of Alabama Press.ISBN978-0-8173-1204-6.: 157
^abBenson, Keith Rodney; Rehbock, Philip F. (2002).Oceanographic History: The Pacific and Beyond. University of Washington Press.ISBN978-0-295-98239-7.: 532
^Adler, Antony (May 1, 2011). "From the Pacific to the Patent Office: The US Exploring Expedition and the origins of America's first national museum".Journal of the History of Collections.23 (1):49–74.doi:10.1093/jhc/fhq002.ISSN0954-6650.
^Baird, S.F.; Emory, W.H. (1857).Report on the United States and Mexican boundary survey. Рипол Классик.ISBN978-5-88160-802-6.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help): 13
^"Museum History".nmh.si.edu. National Museum of Natural History. 2008. Archived fromthe original on July 26, 2009. RetrievedNovember 15, 2009.
^"New Museum Plans".The Washington Post. April 13, 1903.
^Gunter, Ann Clyburn (2002).A Collector's Journey: Charles Lang Freer and Egypt. Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery.ISBN978-1-85759-297-9.: 96
^Fortier, Alison (May 6, 2014).A History Lover's Guide to Washington, D.C.: Designed for Democracy. The History Press.ISBN978-1-62585-064-5.: 110
^Moeller, Gerard Martin; Feldblyum, Boris (2012).AIA Guide to the Architecture of Washington, D.C. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 78.ISBN9781421402697.
^"Quadrangle Complex Opens".The Torch. Smithsonian Institution. January 1987. p. 1.Archived from the original on January 4, 2013. RetrievedMay 16, 2012. Record Unit 371, Box 5.
^"About The Museum". Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum. Archived fromthe original on March 10, 2009. RetrievedDecember 6, 2009.
^"History of the Hirshhorn". Hirshorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution. Archived fromthe original on September 28, 2008. RetrievedDecember 6, 2009.
^"Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center".nasm.si.edu. National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Archived fromthe original on April 30, 2012. RetrievedFebruary 25, 2010.
^"About Us". National Museum of African American History and Culture, Smithsonian Institution. Archived fromthe original on March 26, 2009. RetrievedFebruary 25, 2010.
^"TELEGRAPHIC SUMMARY, ETC".The Baltimore Sun. May 18, 1878. p. 1.The board of regents of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington yesterday elected Prof. Spencer F. Baird secretary of the institution in place of the late Prof. Joseph Henry. Prof. Baird is a native of Reading, Pa., and is a distinguished naturalist, has written several scientific works, is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and is president of the United States Fish Commission.
^"DEATHS OF WELL-KNOWN MEN".The Baltimore Sun. August 20, 1887. p. 4.Spencer F. Baird, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, director of the National Museum and United States commissioner of fish and fisheries, died here at 3.45 P.M. today, in the 65th year of his age.
^"He is Elected Secretary of the Smithsonian Institute".Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. November 19, 1887. p. 2.An Associated Press telegram from Washington last evening, stated that at a special meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institute held yesterday, Prof. P. Langley was elected secretary of the institution, to succeed the late Prof. S. F. Baird.
^"Expeditions Seek Fuller Conception Of World".The Baltimore Sun. April 24, 1927. p. 127.The year's expeditions were headed by journey to Algeria, Baluchistan and Southwest Africa, undertaken by Dr. C. G. Abbot, acting secretary of the Smithsonian, under the auspices of the National Geographic Society and the Smithsonian to select a site for a solar observatory in the Eastern Hemisphere.
^"Elected Secretary Of Smithsonian DR. CHARLES GREELEY ABBOT".The Baltimore Sun. January 11, 1928. p. 11.Charles Greeley Abbot, recognized as the world's foremost authority on solar radiation, was elected secretary of the Smithsonian Institution today board of regents of the institution, headed by Chief Justice Taft. He succeeds the late Dr. Charles D. Walcott. Dr. Abbot has been assistant secretary since 1918 and has directed the work of the institution since Dr. Walcott's death last February.
^"Dr. C. F. Abbot Retires As Smithsonian Official".The Baltimore Sun. June 30, 1944. p. 6.Dr. Charles F. Abbot, 72, reputed to know more about the sun than any other man announced today his retirement as secretary of Washington's Smithsonian Institution. A native of Wilton, N. Dr. Abbot acquired fame as early as for his researches into the phenomena of solar radiation. His books include "The Sun." Dr. Abbot has been Smithsonian secretary since 1928. His assistant, Dr. Alexander Wetmore, a native of Wisconsin, will become acting secretary effective Saturday.
^"Made Smithsonian Secretary".The Baltimore Sun. January 14, 1945. p. 13.Dr. Alexander Wetmore has been elected secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, succeeding Dr. Charles G. Abbott, who resigned last June. Dr. Wetmore has been assistant Secretary since 1925.
^"Dr. Carmichael Made Head of Smithsonian".The Boston Globe. April 10, 1952. p. 3.Pres. Leonard Carmichael of Tufts College said last night he will leave the college "with the deepest feeling of regret" to take the post of secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, to which he was elected, yesterday. An alumnus and president for the past 14 years, Carmichael was selected from a list of 30 distinguished educators, scientists and civic leaders to head the group of national museums in Washington. He is the first college president to hold the position. His election was announced by the chancellor of the board of regents, Fred M. Vinson, Chief Justice of the United States. He succeeds Dr. Alexander Wetmore, retiring after seven years of management of the 106-year-old institution. At Dr. Carmichael's request, the appointment was made effective Jan, 1, 1953. since he wished to be present for the entire calendar year of Tufts Centennial, now being observed.
^"Yale Biologist Named Smithsonian Secretary".Hartford Courant. July 14, 1963. p. 25.Dr. S. Dillon Ripley 2d, director of the Peabody Museum of Natural History here and biology professor at Yale University, was elected secretary of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, DC, it was announced Saturday. The announcement of Dr. Ripley's election by the Smithsonian Board of Regents was announced by Chief Justice Earl Warren of the U.S. Supreme Court, chancellor of the Smithsonian. He will succeed Dr. Leonard Carmichael next Jan. 1. World-Known Dr. Ripley will be the eighth man to serve as secretary of the 117-year-old Smithsonian.
^"Chicago Educator Named Smithsonian Secretary".Los Angeles Times. January 24, 1984. p. 8.The Smithsonian Institution on Monday named University of Chicago archeologist and anthropologist Robert McCormick Adams as its ninth secretary. Adams, 57, will succeed Secretary S. Dillon Ripley when Ripley retires on Sept. 17, just before his 71st birthday, after two decades of guiding the institution's growth.
^ab"Smithsonian gains Latino perspective".Chicago Tribune. December 27, 1994. p. 52.So he was hired by retiring Smithsonian Secretary Robert Adams as a consultant to implement the report's recommendations. When Adams was replaced on Sept. 19 by I. Michael Heyman, the new administrator declared in his inaugural speech his intention to continue the movement toward inclusion.
^Kohn, R. H. (1995). "History and the culture wars: The case of the Smithsonian Institution's Enola Gay Exhibition".The Journal of American History.82 (3):1036–1063.doi:10.2307/2945111.JSTOR2945111.
^Grimaldi, James V.; Trescott, Jacqueline (November 16, 2007)."Scientists Fault Climate Exhibit Changes".The Washington Post. p. 4.Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. RetrievedNovember 18, 2007.
Heather Ewing,The Lost World of James Smithson: Science, Revolution, and the Birth of the Smithsonian. Bloomsbury, 2007.
Nina Burleigh,Stranger and the Statesman: James Smithson, John Quincy Adams, and the Making of America's Greatest Museum, The Smithsonian. New York:HarperCollins, 2003.
William S. Walker,A Living Exhibition: The Smithsonian and the Transformation of the Universal Museum. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2013.
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