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The nameSlovak is derived from*Slověninъ, plural*Slověně, the old name of theSlavs (Proglas, around 863).[a] The original stem has been preserved in all Slovak words except the masculine noun; the femininenoun isSlovenka, theadjective isslovenský, the language isslovenčina and the country isSlovensko. The first written mention of adjectiveslovenský (Slovak) is in 1294 (ad parvam arborem nystra slowenski breza ubi est meta).[12]
The original name of SlovaksSlověninъ/Slověně was still recorded in Pressburg Latin-Czech Dictionary (the 14th century),[13] but it changed toSlovák under the influence ofCzech andPolish (around 1400). The first written mention of new form in the territory of present-day Slovakia is fromBardejov (1444, "Nicoulaus Cossibor hauptman, Nicolaus Czech et Slowak, stipendiarii supremi"). The mentions in Czech sources are older (1375 and 1385).[14] The change is not related to the ethnogenesis of Slovaks, but exclusively to linguistic changes in the West Slavic languages. The wordSlovak was used also later as a common name for all Slavs in Czech, Polish, and also Slovak together with other forms.[14]
In Hungarian, "Slovak" isTót (pl:tótok), anexonym. It was originally used to refer to allSlavs includingSlovenes andCroats, but eventually came to refer primarily to Slovaks. Many place names in Hungary such asTótszentgyörgy,Tótszentmárton, andTótkomlós still bear the name.Tóth is a common Hungarian surname.
The Slovaks have also historically been variously referred to asSlovyenyn,Slowyenyny,Sclavus,Sclavi,Slavus,Slavi,Winde,Wende, orWenden. The final three terms are variations of the Germanic termWends, which was historically used to refer to any Slavs living close to Germanic settlements.
The early Slavs came to the territory of Slovakia in several waves from the 5th and 6th centuries and were organized on a tribal level. Original tribal names are not known due to the lack of written sources before their integration into higher political units. Weakening of tribal consciousness was probably accelerated byAvars, who did not respect tribal differences in the controlled territory and motivated remaining Slavs to join together and to collaborate on their defense. In the 7th century, Slavs founded a larger tribal union:Samo's empire. Regardless of Samo's empire, the integration process continued in other territories with various intensities.[15]
The final fall of theAvar Khaganate allowed new political entities to arise. The first such political unit documented by written sources is thePrincipality of Nitra, one of the foundations of later common ethnic consciousness.[16] At this stage in history it is not yet possible to assume a common identity of all ancestors of Slovaks in the neighboring eastern territories, even if it was inhabited by closely related Slavs. The Principality of Nitra became a part ofGreat Moravia, a common state of Moravians (Czech ancestors were joined only for a few years). The relatively short existence of Great Moravia prevented it from suppressing differences which resulted from its creation from two separate entities, and therefore a common "Slovak-Moravian" ethnic identity failed to develop.[16] The early political integration in the territory of present-day Slovakia was, however, reflected in linguistic integration. While dialects of the early ancestors of Slovaks were divided into West Slavic (western and eastern Slovakia) and non-West Slavic (central Slovakia), between the 8th and 9th centuries both dialects merged, thus laying the foundations of a later Slovak language.
The 10th century is a milestone in the Slovakethnogenesis.[17] The fall of Great Moravia and further political changes supported their formation into a separate nation. At the same time, with the extinction of theProto-Slavic language, between the 10th and 13th centuries Slovak evolved into an independent language (simultaneously with other Slavic languages). The early existence of the Kingdom of Hungary positively influenced the development of common consciousness and companionship among Slavs in the Northern Hungary, not only within boundaries of present-day Slovakia.[16] The clear difference between Slovaks and Hungarians made adoption of a specific name unnecessary and Slovaks preserved their original name (in Latin e.g.Slavus), which was also used in communication with other Slavic peoples (Polonus, Bohemus, Ruthenus).[18] In political terms, the medieval Slovaks were a part of the multi-ethnic political nationNatio Hungarica, together with Hungarians (or, more exactly, Magyars), Slavonians, Germans, Romanians and other ethnic groups in the Kingdom of Hungary. Since a medieval political nation did not consist of ordinary people but nobility, membership of the privileged class was necessary for all these peoples (nobiles Hungary).[19]
Like other nations, the Slovaks began to transform into a modern nation from the 18th century under the idea ofnational romanticism. The modern Slovak nation is the result of radical processes of modernization within the Habsburg Empire which culminated in the middle of the 19th century.[20] The transformation process was slowed down by conflict with Hungarian nationalism and the ethnogenesis of the Slovaks become a political question, particularly regarding their deprivation and preservation of their language and national rights. In 1722,Michal Bencsik, professor of law at theUniversity of Trnava, published a theory that nobility and burghers ofTrenčín should not have same privileges as Hungarians, because they are descendants ofSvatopluk's people (inferior to Magyars). Neither Bencsik nor his Slovak opponentJán Baltazár Magin put the continuity of settlement into serious question. Also, the first history of Slovaks written by Georgius Papanek (or Juraj Papánek), traced the roots of the Slovaks to Great Moravia[21] inHistoria gentis Slavae. De regno regibusque Slavorum... (1780) ("History of the Slovak nation: On the kingdom and kings of the Slovaks").[22] Papánek's work became a basis for argumentation of the Slovak national revival movement. However, the Slovak national revival not only accepted the continuity of population but also emphasized it, thus proving that Slovaks are equal citizens of the state and neither a Hungarian "unique statesmanlike gift" nor Christianization was required for the foundation of the state.
In 1876, Hungarian linguistPál Hunfalvy published a theory about missing continuity between Slovaks and Slavs before the arrival of the Hungarians. Hunfalvy tried to prove that ancestors of Slovaks did not live in the territory of the present-day Slovakia before arrival of the old Hungarians (Magyars), but Slovaks emerged later from other Slavs who came to the Kingdom of Hungary from neighbouring countries after the 13th century.[23]János Karácsonyi assumed that central and northern Slovakia were uninhabited (1901) and in his next work "Our historical right to the territorial integrity of our country" (1921) he claimed that the remainder of the original Slavs were assimilated by Magyars and modern Slovaks are descendants of immigrants from Upper Moravia andOder (the population density on these territories was too low in that time and large numbers of colonists coming from these areas was not possible[23]). The theory was then misused by inter-war Hungarian revisionists, who questioned continuity to support Hungarian claims on Slovakia. In 1982, when rich archaeological evidence proving the opposite was already available,[24] a similar theory was published by Hungarian historianGyörgy Györffy.[24] Györffy accepted that smaller groups of Slavs could remain in the territory of Slovakia, but stated that the Slovaks' origin was in sparse settlement of various Slavic groups strengthened by later colonization. According to Ferenc Makk, the medievalMoravians are not the ancestors of Slovaks and the majority of the Slovak people are descended from later Slavic newcomers.[25]
The opposite theory, supporting the supposedformer common past of the Czech and Slovak nations, thus also legitimizing the creation of the unitedCzechoslovak nation,[26] gained political support in inter-war Czechoslovakia.[26] Like Karácsonyi, Czech historianVáclav Chaloupecký assumed that northern and central parts of Slovakia remained uninhabited until the 13th century and that the south-western part was inhabited by Czechs. Yet, in 1946 Chaloupecký assumed that the Slovak nation emerged from neighboring Slavs and had been formed only in the 17th century. His theory about the lack of population in the greater part of Slovakia covered by forests had already been scientifically refuted byDaniel Rapant (e.g. inO starý Liptov, 1934), and was proven wrong by numerous archaeological finds[note 1] and rejected by Czechoslovak historiography. On the other hand, inter-war Slovak autonomists, opposing ethnic Czechoslovakism, dated the existence of the Slovak nation to the time of Pribina (trials to document existence of Slovaks in early Slavic era, i.e. in the time of Samo's empire, are marginal and exist outside of modern mainstream Slovak historiography).
After thedissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the formation of independent Slovakia motivated interest in a particularly Slovak national identity.[27] One reflection of this was the rejection of the common Czechoslovak national identity in favour of a purely Slovak one.[27]
The first knownSlavic states on the territory of present-day Slovakia were the Empire ofSamo and thePrincipality of Nitra, founded sometime in the 8th century.
Great Moravia (833 – 902-907) was a Slavic state in the 9th and early 10th centuries, whose creators were the ancestors of the Czechs and Slovaks.[30][31] Important developments took place at this time, including the mission of Byzantine monksCyril and Methodius, the development of theGlagolitic alphabet (an early form of theCyrillic script), and the use ofOld Church Slavonic as the official and literary language. Its formation and rich cultural heritage have attracted somewhat more interest since the 19th century.
The original territory inhabited by the Slavic tribes included not only present-day Slovakia, but also parts of present-day Poland, southeastern Moravia and approximately the entire northern half of present-day Hungary.[32]
The territory of present-day Slovakia was split in two parts between theKingdom of Hungary (under Hungarian rule gradually from 907 to the early 14th century) toUpper Hungary andRoyal Hungary (under the Habsburgs from 1527 – 1848 (see alsoHungarian Revolution of 1848)) until the formation ofCzechoslovakia in 1918.[33] However, according to other historians, from 895 to 902, the whole area of the present-day Slovakia became part of the rising Principality of Hungary, and became (without gradation) part of the Kingdom of Hungary a century later.[34][35][36] A separate entity calledNitra Frontier Duchy, existed at this time within the Kingdom of Hungary. This duchy was abolished in 1107. The territory inhabited by the Slovaks in present-day Hungary was gradually reduced.[37]
When most of Hungary was conquered by theOttoman Empire in 1541 (seeOttoman Hungary), the territory of present-daySlovakia became the new center of the reduced kingdom[38] that remained under Hungarian, and laterHabsburg rule, officially called Royal Hungary.[38] SomeCroats settled around and in present-dayBratislava for similar reasons. Also, manyGermans settled in the Kingdom of Hungary,[38] especially in the towns, as work-seeking colonists and mining experts from the 13th to the 15th century.Jews andGypsies also formed significant populations within the territory.[38] During the period, most of present-day Slovakia was part of Habsburg rule, but Ottoman ruled southern and southeasternmost parts of it.
After the Ottoman Empire was forced to retreat from present-day Hungary around 1700, thousands of Slovaks were gradually settled in depopulated parts of the restored Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Hungary,Romania,Serbia, andCroatia) underMaria Theresia, and that is how present-day Slovak enclaves (likeSlovaks in Vojvodina,Slovaks in Hungary) in these countries arose.
AfterTransylvania, Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia) was the most advanced part of the Kingdom of Hungary for centuries, but in the 19th century, whenBuda/Pest became the new capital of the kingdom, the importance of the territory, as well as other parts within the Kingdom fell, and many Slovaks were impoverished. As a result, hundreds of thousands of Slovaks emigrated to North America, especially in the late 19th and early 20th century (between cca. 1880–1910), a total of at least 1.5 million emigrants.
Slovakia exhibits a very rich folk culture. A part of Slovak customs andsocial convention are common with those of other nations of the formerHabsburg monarchy (the Kingdom of Hungary was inpersonal union with the Habsburg monarchy from 1867 to 1918).
People of Slovakia spent most part of the 20th century within the framework ofCzechoslovakia, a new state formed after World War I. Significant reforms and post-World War IIindustrialization took place during this time.Slovak was strongly influenced byCzech during this period.[39]
The most famousSlovak names can indubitably be attributed to invention and technology. Such people includeJozef Murgaš, the inventor of wireless telegraphy;Ján Bahýľ,Štefan Banič, inventor of the modern parachute;Aurel Stodola, inventor of the bionic arm and pioneer in thermodynamics; and, more recently,John Dopyera, father of modern acoustic string instruments. Hungarian inventorsJoseph Petzval andÁnyos Jedlik were born of Slovak fathers.
There were two leading persons who codified Slovak. The first one wasAnton Bernolák whose concept was based on the dialect of western Slovakia (1787). It was the enactment of the first national standard language for the Slovaks. The second notable man wasĽudovít Štúr. His formation of Slovak had principles in the dialect of central Slovakia (1843).
The best known Slovak hero wasJuraj Jánošík (the Slovak equivalent ofRobin Hood). The prominent explorer and diplomatMóric Beňovský, Hungarian transcript Benyovszky was Slovak as well (he comes from Vrbové in present-day Slovakia and is e.g. listed as "nobilis Slavicus – Slovak nobleman" in his secondary school registration).
The language spread of Slovak in the United States according to U. S. Census 2000 and other resources interpreted by research of U. S. English Foundation, percentage of home speakers
There are approximately 5.4 million autochthonous Slovaks in Slovakia. Further Slovaks live in the following countries (the list shows estimates of embassies etc. and of associations of Slovaks abroad in the first place, and official data of the countries as of 2000/2001 in the second place).
The list stems from Claude Baláž, a Canadian Slovak, the currentplenipotentiary of the Government of the Slovak Republic for Slovaks abroad (see e.g.:6):
United States (1,200,000 / 821,325*) [*(1) there were, however, 1,882,915 Slovaks in the US according to the 1990 census, (2) there are some 400,000 "Czechoslovaks" in the US, a large part of which are Slovaks] – 19th – 21st century emigrants; see alsoUnited States Census[42]
Czech Republic (350,000 / 183,749*) [*there were, however, 314 877 Slovaks in the Czech Republic according to the 1991 census] – due to the existence of formerCzechoslovakia
Hungary (39,266 / 17,693)
Canada (100,000 / 50,860) – 19th – 21st century migrants
Serbia (60,000 / 59,021*) [especially inVojvodina;*excl. theRusins] – 18th & 19th century settlers
Poland (2002) (47,000 / 2,000*) [* The Central Census Commission has accepted the objection of the Association of Slovaks in Poland with respect to this number] – ancient minority and due to border shifts during the 20th century
Australia (12,000 / n.a.) – 20th – 21st century migrants
Austria (10,234 / 10,234) – 20th – 21st century migrants
United Kingdom (10,000 / n.a.)
Croatia (5,000 / 4,712) – 18th & 19th century settlers
other countries
The number of Slovaks living outside Slovakia in line with the above data was estimated at max. 2,016,000 in 2001 (2,660,000 in 1991), implying that, in sum, there were max. some 6,630,854 Slovaks in 2001 (7,180,000 in 1991) in the world. The estimate according to the right-hand site chart yields an approximate population of Slovaks living outside Slovakia of 1.5 million.
Other (much higher) estimates stemming from the Dom zahraničných Slovákov (House of Foreign Slovaks) can be found onSME.[43]
^The Slovaks andSlovenes are the only current Slavic nations that have preserved the original name. For Slovenes, the adjective is stillslovenski and the femininenoun "Slovene" is still alsoSlovenka, but themasculine noun has since changed toSlovenec. The Slovak name for their language isslovenčina and the Slovene name for theirs isslovenščina. The Slovak term forSlovene isslovinčina; and the Slovenes call Slovakslovaščina. The name is derived from proto-Slavic formslovo "word, talk" (cf. Slovaksluch, which comes from the IE root *ḱlew-). ThusSlovaks as well asSlovenians would mean "people who speak (the same language)", i.e. people who understand each other.
^For example Slavic mounds in Krasňany near Žilina, cemetery in Martin, magnate mounds in Turčianska Blatnica, Malý Čepčín and Žabokreky, settlements in Liptovský Michal, Liptovská Mara (unearthed during construction of the water dam), Vlachy, Liptovská Štiavnica, Paludza, Sokolče, Lisková, Podtureň, Prosiek, Bobrovník, Likavka – all of them from 8–10th century. (Uhlár, 1992, p. 326)
^Kristó, Gyula (1993). A Kárpát-medence és a magyarság régmúltja (1301-ig) (The ancient history of the Carpathian Basin and the Hungarians – till 1301)[1]Archived 2011-05-11 at theWayback Machine Szeged: Szegedi Középkorász Műhely. p. 299.ISBN963-04-2914-4.
^abcMarshall Cavendish Corporation (2009). "Slovakia; Cultural expression".World and Its Peoples. Vol. 7. Marshall Cavendish. p. 993.ISBN9780761478836.
Marsina, Richard (1995).Nové pohľady historickej vedy na slovenské dejiny. I. časť. Najstaršie obdobie slovenských dejín (do prelomu 9.-10. storočia) (in Slovak). Bratislava: Metodické centrum mesta Bratislavy.ISBN978-80-7164-069-1.
Marsina, Richard (2009). "K problematike etnogenézy Slovákov a ich pomenovania". In Marsina, Richard; Mulík, Peter (eds.).Etnogenéza Slovákov (in Slovak). Martin:Matica slovenská.ISBN978-80-7090-940-9.
Eberhardt, Piotr (2003).Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-Century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, Analysis. M.E. Sharpe.ISBN978-0-7656-0665-5.
Mikuš, Joseph A. (1977).Slovakia and the Slovaks. Three Continents Press.ISBN9780914478881.The work is superbly illustrated by Martin Benka, a Slovak painter of comparable
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