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Sifrei Kodesh (Hebrew:ספרי קודש,lit. 'Holy books'), commonly referred to assefarim (Hebrew:ספרים,lit. 'books'), or in its singular form,sefer, are books of Jewish religious literature and are viewed byreligious Jews as sacred. These are generally works ofTorah literature, i.e.Tanakh and all works that expound on it, including theMishnah,Midrash (Halakha,Aggadah),Talmud, and all works ofMusar,Hasidism,Kabbalah, ormachshavah ("Jewish Thought"). Historically,sifrei kodesh were generally written in Hebrew with some inJudeo-Aramaic orArabic, although in recent years, thousands of titles in other languages, most notably English, were published. An alternative spelling for 'sefarim' isseforim.
The termSifrei Kodesh is Hebrew for "Holy Books", and includes all books that are considered holy inRabbinic Judaism. This includes all Torah literature as well asJewish prayer books.[citation needed]
AmongOrthodox Jews the wordספרsefer (pluralספריםs'farim)[1] is used for books of theTanakh, theOral Torah (Mishnah andTalmud) or any work ofrabbinic literature. Works unrelated toTorah study are rarely calledsefer by English-speaking Orthodox Jews. Among Hebrew-speakingAshkenazi Jews, the differentiation between books related to Torah study and other books is made by referring to the former with traditionalAshkenazi pronunciation (SEY-fur) and to the latter withModern Hebrew pronunciation (SEF-fer).[citation needed]
The term "Torah" has two meanings. It can refer solely to theFive Books of Moses. Traditionally, it is written on a parchment scroll, known as aSefer Torah, although it is also printed in book form, known as aChumash (and in some cases atikkun). The term "Torah" can also include theNevi'im andKetuvim) and rabbinic texts, and such books are therefore sometimes also referred to as "Torah literature" (Hebrew:ספרות תורנית,romanized: Sifrut Toranit).[citation needed]
TheHebrew Bible or Tanakh, also known asTorah Shebikhtav ("Written " as opposed to "Oral" Torah) is a collective term for the three sections of the Bible, those being theTorah, the Nevi'im, and the Ketuvim. Separately, the Nevi'im and Ketuvim are also calledNakh.
Numerous commentaries on the Tanakh have been written and published over the last thousand years. The most notable ones areTargum Onkelos, a translation of the Torah intoJudeo-Aramaic, written byOnkelos;[2] andRashi, a commentary on the entire Tanakh written byRashi. Both are traditionally printed in theChumash alongside the biblical text.[3] Other commentaries that are sometimes printed alongside the text in the Chumash are commentaries by RabbiJacob ben Asher and RabbiShabbethai Bass (theSiftei Chachamim). Commentaries traditionally printed alongside theNakh areRashi as well asMetzudat David andMetzudat Zion by RabbiDavid Altschuler.[4]
In addition to the classic printings of Tanakh which don't include many more commentaries thanRashi andTargum Onkelos, there is theMikraot Gedolot edition which was first published in the early sixteenth century. Commentaries in theMikraot Gedolot on the Torah are generally those ofAbraham ibn Ezra (Sefer ha-Yashar),Nachmanides, RabbiShlomo Ephraim Luntschitz (theKeli Yakar),Chaim ibn Attar, and the translation and commentary attributed to RabbiJonathan ben Uzziel, known asTargum Pseudo-Jonathan, all in addition toRashi andTargum Onkelos; while commentaries onNakh are those of Rashi, RabbiDavid Altschuler, RabbiDavid Kimhi, RabbiJoseph Kara, and on some volumes, RabbiObadiah ben Jacob Sforno (theSforno orSepornu).
Among the numerous commentaries of Tanakh not published in theMikraot Gedolot are theMeam Loez,[5]Malbim,[6]Ha'amek Davar,[7]Torah Temimah,[8] andThe Hirsch Chumash.[9]
Aside from the Bible, there were several writings of Jewish religious significance inancient times, known today as "the outer books". There are some other writings however that most agree were written more recently that have been claimed to be older. These include theSefer Yetzirah, which some say was written byAbraham;[10] and theBook of Enoch, which some say was written byEnoch.[11]
As stated earlier, Jewish belief is that the Pentateuch is ofMosaic authorship, meaning that it was dictated byGod toMoses. Later writings, theNevi'im andKetuvim, were, according to tradition, written by Jewish prophets. For over a thousand years, these books, known asTanakh, were more or less the sole writings of Judaism. However, there was much material that was not written down, and instead memorized. Known as theOral Torah, it includes over five hundreds laws learned out fromTalmudical hermeneutics as well as thelaws given to Moses at Sinai (Hebrew:הלכה למשה מסיני,romanized: Halakhah leMoshe miSinai). However, circa 200 C.E., much of the Oral Torah was written down, and is known as theMishnah (theZohar, a book chronicling the hidden parts of the Torah, was written down as well around this time by RabbiShimon bar Yochai). Three hundred years later theTalmud was written, expounding on the Mishnah.
For generations, theOral Torah had been transmitted by word of mouth, largely with the help of theSanhedrin, the leading Jewish authority. However, after thedestruction of the Second Temple, the Sanhedrin had been uprooted and much of the Oral Torah was being forgotten. Therefore, c. 188 CE, RabbiJudah ha-Nasi, head of the exiled Sanhedrin, compiled theMishnah, i.e. the teachings of the Oral Torah.[12] Since theMaccabean Revolt however, much had already been lost, which led to many disagreements among the scholars, theTannaim. Therefore, the Mishnah includes their differing opinions. AsMaimonides wrote in the introduction to hisMishneh Torah:
[Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi] gathered together all the traditions, enactments, interpretations, and expositions of every position of the Torah, that eithercame down to Moses, our teacher, or had beendeduced by the courts in successive generations.[13]
A similar project was carried out by RabbiHiyya bar Abba and his student RabbiHoshaiah, known as theTosefta. A collection of statements not included in the Mishnah was compiled by RabbiOshiya andBar Kappara, known asBaraitot.
Circa 349,[14] the Sanhedrin, exiled from Jerusalem and sitting inTiberias, wrote theJerusalem Talmud, a mammoth work compiling the teachings of the rabbis of the recent generations, known asAmoraim, as they expounded on the Mishnah.[15] It is largely attributed toRabbi Yochanan. However, the Jerusalem Talmud is generally overshadowed by theBabylonian Talmud, a similar yet much larger work, compiling the teachings of theAmoraim, and completed in Babylonia circa 500.[14] The teachings were largely legalistic in nature, statinghalakha. There were other teachings, known asaggadah, which incorporates narratives, parables, practical advice, remedies, and insights. The Babylonian Talmud, attributed toRav Ashi andRavina, was first printed in 1483 byJoshua Solomon Soncino.[16] Soncino's layout of the Talmud, with the original Talmud text in the center of the page, with the commentary of Rashi on the outer margins and the commentary ofTosafot on the inner ones, was later imitated by Christian printerDaniel Bomberg, who printed the entire Talmud between the years 1519 and 1523,[17] and by all subsequent major printings of the Talmud.[18] Rabbi Moshe Shapiro, rabbi ofSlavuta, Ukraine and owner of a printing press, published the Slavita Shas[a] in the early 1800s. In 1886, theRomm Publishing House inVilnius published theVilna Shas, which has since been reprinted and remains the classic print of the Talmud.
In the past years, there have been numerous commentaries written on the Talmud. While the most commonly referenced commentaries are those of Rashi and Tosafot, and as mentioned, are printed in the margins of the Talmud, other famous commentaries (which often are recognized as Halakhic works as well) include thePiskei HaRosh,Shitah Mekubetzet,[19]Maharsha (thePiskei Halachot andPiskei Aggadot), thePnei Yehoshua,[4] theMordechai, theChiddushia HaRitva,[20] theMeiri, theMaharshal'sChochmas Shlomo andYam Shel Shlomo,[21] theMeir Einei Chachmamim, theKehillos Yaakov,[22] theShaarei Yosher,[23] and theBirkat Shmuel,[24] as well as many publishedshiurim (classes) given on the Talmud, including those of RabbiNochum Partzovitz (Chiddushei Reb Nochum andShiurei Reb Nochum), RabbiShmuel Rozovsky (Shiurei Reb Shmuel andChiddushei Reb Shmuel),[25] RabbiReuven Grozovsky (Chiddushei Rev Reuven), RabbiElchonon Wasserman (Kovetz Shiurim andKovetz He'aros),[23] RabbiChaim Soloveitchik (Chiddushei HaGrach al HaShas),[26] RabbiNaftoli Trop (Chiddushei HaGranat), and RabbiAryeh Leib Malin (Chiddushei Reb Aryeh Leib).
The termKabbalah refers to the "hidden parts of the Torah," often described as "Jewishmetaphysics." Kabbalistic works show how every physical thing is a metaphor for a spiritual concept.[27] The primary Kabbalistic work, the Zohar, was written by RabbiShimon bar Yochai, aTanna who lived in the second century, although it was lost for many years. However, it was discovered in Spain in the thirteenth century and transcribed by hand numerous times, leading to changes between the texts. Between 1558 and 1560, it was printed inMantua based on ten different manuscripts in order to glean the correct text. A separate printing took place inCremona around the same time, using only six manuscripts, leading to differences in the two printings.[28]
The Zohar was largely expounded on by RabbiYitzchak Luria (known as the Arizal) and his teachings were summarized in the bookEtz Chaim by his chief student, RabbiChaim Vital.[29]
Jewish law, known in Hebrew asHalakha, was transcribed first in the Mishnah and later in the Talmud, with the differing opinions spread out over sixty threetractates. However, later rabbis — namely theGeonim of theEarly Middle Ages, theRishonim of theHigh andLate Middle Ages, and theAcharonim of modern times — wrote more conclusive works. Many of these works areresponsa (she'eilot u'teshuvot in Hebrew), printed questions and answers.
The Geonim, the leaders of Jewry in theEarly Middle Ages primarily inBabylonia, were not prolific writers like later generations. However, among their few writings is the famedSheiltot de-Rav Ahai written by RabbiAchai Gaon.
TheRishonim, the leading rabbis of the Middle Ages after the Geonim, have left many written Halakhic works, including thePiskei HaRosh of RabbiAsher ben Yechiel[30] and theSefer HaHalakhot of RabbiYitzchak Alfasi,[31] both of which are often published in the back of the Talmud; and theArba'ah Turim, also known as theTur, of RabbiYaakov ben Asher, a four volume work written in attempt to organize Jewish law.[32]
RabbiMoshe ben Maimon, known as Maimonides or as the Rambam, was a Rishon who lived in Spain, Morocco, and Egypt in the second half of the twelfth century. The author of several books, his most famous is a halakhic work,Mishneh Torah, also known as theYad HaChazakah or simply as theRambam, which is fourteen volumes long. Although when it was first written,Mishne Torah received much backlash from contemporary Jewish leaders, it soon became recognized by world Jewry as authentic Torah literature,[33] with many commentaries written on it, including theOhr Somayach,Tzofnath Paneach and the writings of theSoloveitchik dynasty, includingChiddushei Rabbeinu Chaim by RabbiChaim Soloveitchik;[34] works by his sons,Chiddushei HaGram HaLevi of RabbiMoshe Soloveitchik andChiddushei Maran Ryz HaLevi of RabbiYitzchak Zev Soloveitchik;[35] and by his grandson RabbiMeshulam Dovid Soloveitchik, titled Chiddushei Rabbeinu Meshulam Dovid Halevi.[36] A student of Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik, RabbiIsser Zalman Meltzer wrote his own commentary on the Rambam, titledEven HaEzel.[37]
Likely the most monumental Halakhic work ever written, RabbiYoseph Karo completed theShulchan Aruch (orCode of Jewish Law, sometimes shortened toCodes) in 1565 inSafed. It was a condensation of his previous Halakhic work,Beit Yosef, which was written as commentary on theArba'ah Turim.[32] Like theTur, it was divided into four sections:Orach Chayim,Yoreh De'ah,Even Ha'ezer, andChoshen Mishpat. TheMapah, a commentary onShulchan Aruch by RabbiMoshe Isserles (the Rema) is generally printed together with theShulchan Aruch in the center of the page,[38] albeit in a different font, with the commentaries ofTurei Zahav of RabbiDavid HaLevi Segal andMagen Avraham of RabbiAvraham Gombiner orSiftei Kohen of RabbiShabbatai HaKohen printed in the margins.[39] Major commentaries written on the Shulchan Aruch include theKetzos Hachoshen,Avnei Milu'im, and theNesivos Hamishpat.
Many later Halakhic works were based onShulchan Aruch. These include RabbiShneur Zalman of Liadi'sShulchan Aruch HaRav,[40] RabbiYechiel Michel Epstein'sAruch HaShulchan, RabbiShlomo Ganzfried'sKitzur Shulchan Aruch,[7] and RabbiAvraham Danzig'sChayei Adam andChochmas Adam (only onOrach Chayim andYoreh De'ah).[41]Mishnah Berurah, a six-volume work expounding onOrach Chayim, was published between 1884 and 1907 and is followed by mostLitvishe Jews almost exclusively. ComparativeSephardic works areKaf HaChaim andYalkut Yosef. TheBen Ish Hai, by RabbiYosef Hayyim, is based on the sermons he delivered, and therefore includeshalakha as well as Kabbalah and explanations on the Torah.[7]
Many Halakhic works of the Acharonim are responsa. These include theIgros Moshe of RabbiMoshe Feinstein,[42] theNoda B'Yehudah of RabbiYechezkel Landau,[41]She'eilot U'teshuvot Rabbi Akiva Eiger of RabbiAkiva Eiger,[43]Beis HaLevi by RabbiYosef Dov Soloveitchik,[44]Shevet HaLevi of RabbiShmuel Wosner, andTzitz Eliezer of RabbiEliezer Waldenberg. Another notable Halakhic work is theChofetz Chaim, dealing with the laws of proper speech, and written by RabbiYisrael Meir Kagan.[45]
Also known aschasidus,Hasidism is an Orthodox Jewish movement originating in Eastern Europe in the mid-eighteenth century, founded by theBaal Shem Tov. Describing Hasidic thought, RabbiAryeh Kaplan writes:
In the teachings of Hasidic masters, one comes across a new way of approaching God and the spiritual. NeitherKabbalah nor philosophy, but experience is the proper way to approach God. "Serve God with gladness!" "Taste and see that God is good!" "For me the closeness of God is best!"... The Hasidic masters used the language of Kabbalah and to a lesser extent that of Jewish philosophy, to teach the average individual how he could experience God.[46]
The first Hasidic book to be published,Toldot Yaakov Yosef by RabbiYaakov Yosef of Pollonye and interlaced with quotations from the Baal Shem Tov, was published in 1780.[46][47] Later Hasidic works includeNoam Elimelech by RabbiElimelech of Lizensk,[48]Bnei Yissaschar by RabbiTzvi Elimelech Spira,[49]Kedushat Levi by RabbiLevi Yitzchok of Berditchev,[50] andTanya by RabbiShneur Zalman of Liadi.[51]
While the study of musar (spiritual andinterpersonal self-improvement) always existed in Jewish circles, it became more widespread with the start ofMusar movement in the nineteenth century. The classic musar library ofShaarei Teshuvah,Chovot HaLevavot,Maalot HaMiddot,Orchot Tzaddikim,Mesillat Yesharim, andDerech Hashem was later expanded with the writings of rabbis andmashgiachs after the Musar movement began. Later works include RabbiYisrael Salanter'sOr Yisrael, RabbiSimcha Zissel Ziv'sChochmah U'Mussar, RabbiYosef Yozel Horowitz'sMadreigas HaAdam, RabbiEliyahu Dessler'sMichtav MeEliyahu, RabbiYeruchom Levovitz'sDaas Chochmah U'Mussar andDaas Torah, RabbiChaim Shmuelevitz'sSichos Musar,[52] and RabbiShlomo Wolbe'sAlei Shur.
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