In the unrest of the Sengoku period,jizamurai families, that is, elite peasant-warriors, inIga Province and the adjacentKōka District formedikki – "revolts" or "leagues" – as a means of self-defense. They became known for their military activities in the nearby regions and sold their services as mercenaries and spies. It is from these areas that much of the knowledge regarding the ninja is drawn.[5] Following theTokugawa shogunate in the 17th century, the ninja faded into obscurity.[6] A number ofshinobi manuals, often based on Chinesemilitary philosophy, were written in the 17th and 18th centuries, most notably theBansenshūkai (1676).[7]
By the time of theMeiji Restoration (1868),shinobi had become a topic of popular imagination and mystery in Japan. Ninja figured prominently in legend and folklore, where they were associated with legendary abilities such asinvisibility, walking on water, and control over naturalelements. Much of theirperception in popular culture is based on such legends and folklore, as opposed to the covert actors of the Sengoku period.
The wordshinobi appears in the written record as far back as the late 8th century in poems in theMan'yōshū.[9][10] The underlying connotation ofshinobi (忍) means "to steal away; to hide" and—by extension—"to forbear", hence its association with stealth and invisibility.Mono (者) means "a person".
Historically, the wordninja was not in common use, and a variety of regionalcolloquialisms evolved to describe what would later be dubbed ninja. Along withshinobi, these includemonomi ("one who sees"),nokizaru ("macaque on the roof"),rappa ("ruffian"),kusa ("grass") andIga-mono ("one from Iga").[6] In historical documents,shinobi is almost always used.
Kunoichi (くノ一) is, originally, anargot which means "woman";[11]: p168 it supposedly comes from the characters くノ一 (respectively hiraganaku, katakanano and kanjiichi), which make up the three strokes that form the kanji for "woman" (女).[11]: p168 In fiction written in the modern erakunoichi means "female ninja".[11]: p167
In English, the plural ofninja can be either unchanged asninja, reflecting the Japanese language's lack ofgrammatical number, or the regular English pluralninjas.[12]
History
Despite many popular folktales, historical accounts of the ninja are scarce. The social origin of the ninja is seen as the reason they agree to operate in secret, trading their service for money without honor and glory.[13]
However, someninjutsu books described specifically what tactics ninja should use to fight, and the scenarios in which a ninja might find themselves can be deduced from those tactics. For example, in the manuscript of volume 2 ofKanrin Seiyō (間林清陽) which is the original book ofBansenshūkai (万川集海), there are 48 points of ninja's fighting techniques, such as how to makemakibishi from bamboo, how to make footwear that makes no sound, fighting techniques when surrounded by many enemies, precautions when using swords at night, how to listen to small sounds,kuji-kiri that prevents guard dogs from barking, and so on.[14][15]
Predecessors
Yamato Takeru dressed as a maidservant, preparing to kill the Kumaso leaders. Woodblock print on paper.Yoshitoshi, 1886.
The titleninja has sometimes been attributed retrospectively to the semi-legendary 2nd-century princeYamato Takeru.[16] In theKojiki, the young Yamato Takeru disguised himself as a charming maiden and assassinated two chiefs of theKumaso people.[17] However, these records take place at a very early stage of Japanese history, and they are unlikely to be connected to theshinobi of later accounts. The first recorded use of espionage was under the employment ofPrince Shōtoku in the 6th century.[18] Such tactics were considered unsavory even in early times, when, according to the 10th-centuryShōmonki, the boy spyHasetsukabe no Koharumaru was killed for spying against the insurgentTaira no Masakado.[19] Later, the 14th-century war chronicleTaiheiki contained many references toshinobi[16] and credited the destruction of a castle by fire to an unnamed but "highly skilledshinobi".
Early history
It was not until the 15th century that spies were specially trained for their purpose. It was around this time that the wordshinobi appeared to define and clearly identify ninja as a secretive group of agents. Evidence for this can be seen in historical documents, which began to refer to stealthy soldiers asshinobi during theSengoku period. Later manuals regarding espionage are often grounded in Chinesemilitary strategy, quoting works such asThe Art of War bySun Tzu.[20]
By the Sengoku period, theshinobi had several roles, including spy (kanchō),scout (teisatsu), surprise attacker (kishu), and agitator (konran). The ninja families were organized into largerguilds, each with their own territories.[21] A system of rank existed. Ajōnin ("upper person") was the highest rank, representing the group and hiring out mercenaries. This is followed by thechūnin ("middle person"), assistants to thejōnin. At the bottom was thegenin ("lower person"), field agents drawn from the lower class and assigned to carry out actual missions.[22]
The plains ofIga, nested in secluded mountains, gave rise to villages specialized in the training of ninja.
The Iga and Kōga "clans" werejizamurai families living in the province ofIga (modernMie Prefecture) and the adjacent region ofKōka (later written asKōga), named after a village in what is nowShiga Prefecture. From these regions, villages devoted to the training of ninja first appeared.[23] The remoteness and inaccessibility of the surrounding mountains in Iga may have had a role in the ninja's secretive development.[22] The chronicleGo Kagami Furoku writes, of the two clans' origins:
There was a retainer of the family of Kawai Aki-no-kami of Iga, of pre-eminent skill inshinobi, and consequently for generations the name of people from Iga became established. Another tradition grew in Kōga.
Likewise, a supplement to theNochi Kagami, a record of theAshikaga shogunate, confirms the same Iga origin:
Inside the camp at Magari of theshōgun [Ashikaga]Yoshihisa there wereshinobi whose names were famous throughout the land. When Yoshihisa attackedRokkaku Takayori, the family of Kawai Aki-no-kami of Iga, who served him at Magari, earned considerable merit asshinobi in front of the great army of theshōgun. Since then successive generations of Iga men have been admired. This is the origin of the fame of the men of Iga.
These professional ninja were actively hired bydaimyōs between 1485 and 1581. Specifically, the Iga professionals were sought after for their skill at siege warfare, or "shirotori", which included night attacks and ambush.[24] By the 1460s, the leading families in the regions had establishedde facto independence from theirshugo. TheKōkaikki persisted until 1574, when it was forced to become a vassal ofOda Nobunaga. TheIgaikki continued until 1581, when Nobunaga invaded Iga Province and wiped out the organized clans.[25] Survivors were forced to flee, some to the mountains ofKii, but others arrived beforeTokugawa Ieyasu, where they were well treated. Some former Iga clan members, includingHattori Hanzō, would later serve as Tokugawa's bodyguards.[26] Prior to the conquest of Kōka in 1574, the two confederacies worked inalliance together from at least 1487.
Following theBattle of Okehazama in 1560, Tokugawa employed a group of eighty Kōga ninja, led by Tomo Sukesada. They were tasked to raid an outpost of theImagawa clan. The account of this assault is given in theMikawa Go Fudoki, where it was written that Kōga ninja infiltrated the castle, set fire to its towers, and killed thecastellan along with two hundred of the garrison.
Activities under Tokugawa
After the assassination of Oda Nobunaga, Iga and Kōka ninja, according to tradition, helped Ieyasu undergo anarduous journey to escape the enemies of Nobunaga inSakai and return toMikawa. However, their journey was very dangerous due to the existence of"Ochimusha-gari" groups across the route.[a] During this journey, Tokugawa generals such asIi Naomasa,Sakai Tadatsugu andHonda Tadakatsu fought their way through raids and harassment from Ochimusha-gari (Samurai hunter) outlaws to secure the way for Ieyasu, while sometimes advancing by usage of gold and silver bribes given to some of the more amenable Ochimusha-gari groups.[30] As they reached Kada, an area betweenKameyama town and Iga,[31] The attacks from Ochimusha-gari finally ended as they reached the former territory of the Kōka ikki, who were friendly to the Tokugawa clan. The Koka ninja assisted the Tokugawa escort group in eliminating the threats of Ochimusha-gari outlaws then escorting them until they reachedIga Province, where they were further protected by samurai clans from Iga ikki which accompanied the Ieyasu group until they safely reached Mikawa. TheIetada nikki journal records that the escort group of Ieyasu has killed some 200 outlaws during their journey from Osaka.[32][33]
The Kōga ninja are said to have played a role in the laterBattle of Sekigahara (1600), where several hundred Kōga assisted soldiers underTorii Mototada in the defence ofFushimi Castle. After Tokugawa's victory at Sekigahara, the Iga acted as guards for the inner compounds ofEdo Castle, while the Kōga acted as a police force and assisted in guarding the outer gate.[26] In 1603, a group of ninja warriors from Iga clan led by Miura Yo'emon were assigned under the command ofRed Demon brigades of Ii Naomasa, the daimyo ofHikone under Tokugawa shogunate.
In 1608, a daimyo namedTōdō Takatora was assigned by Ieyasu to control ofTsu, a newly established domain which covered portions of Iga andIse Province. The domain at first worth of to the 220,000,[34] then grow further in productivity to the total revenue of 320,000 koku under Takatora governance.[35][36] It was reported that Tōdō Takatora employs theIga-ryū Ninjas. Aside from Ninjas, he also employs local clans of Iga province as "Musokunin", which is a class of part time Samurai who has been allowed to retain their clan name but does not own any land orHan. The Musokunin also worked as farmer during peace, while they are obliged to take arms in the time of war.[37][38][39]
In 1614, The Iga province warriors saw action during thesiege of Osaka. Takatora brought the Musokunin auxiliaries from Iga province to besiege the Osaka castle during the winter phase.[37][38] Meanwhile the ninja units of Iga province were deployed under several commanders such asHattori Hanzō, and Yamaoka Kagetsuge, andIi Naotora, heir of Naomasa who also given control of Ii clan's Red Demons ninjas after Naomasa died. Later in 1615, during the summer phase of Osaka siege, The Ii clan Red Demons ninjas led by Miura Yo'emon, Shimotani Sanzo, Okuda Kasa'emon, and Saga Kita'emon saw action once again during theBattle of Tennōji, as they were reportedly fought together with the Tokugawa regular army storming on the south gate of Osaka castle. In 1614, the initial "winter campaign" at theSiege of Osaka saw the ninja in use once again. Miura Yoemon, a ninja in Tokugawa's service, recruitedshinobi from the Iga region, and sent 10 ninja intoOsaka Castle in an effort to foster antagonism between enemy commanders.During the later "summer campaign", these hired ninja fought alongside regular troops at theBattle of Tennōji.
A final but detailed record of ninja employed in open warfare occurred during theShimabara Rebellion (1637–1638). The Kōga ninja were recruited byshōgunTokugawa Iemitsu againstChristian rebels led byAmakusa Shirō, who made a final stand atHara Castle, inHizen Province. A diary kept by a member of theMatsudaira clan, theAmakusa Gunki, relates: "Men from Kōga inŌmi Province who concealed their appearance would steal up to the castle every night and go inside as they pleased."
The Ukai diary, written by a descendant of Ukai Kanemon, has several entries describing the reconnaissance actions taken by the Kōga.
They [the Kōga] were ordered to reconnoitre the plan of construction of Hara Castle, and surveyed the distance from the defensivemoat to theni-no-maru (secondbailey), the depth of the moat, the conditions of roads, the height of the wall, and the shape of the loopholes.[40]
Suspecting that the castle's supplies might be running low, the siege commanderMatsudaira Nobutsuna ordered a raid on the castle's provisions. Here, the Kōga captured bags of enemy provisions, and infiltrated the castle by night, obtaining secret passwords. Days later, Nobutsuna ordered an intelligence gathering mission to determine the castle's supplies. Several Kōga ninja—some apparently descended from those involved in the 1562 assault on anImagawa clan castle—volunteered despite being warned that chances of survival were slim. A volley of shots was fired into the sky, causing the defenders to extinguish the castle lights in preparation. Under the cloak of darkness, ninja disguised as defenders infiltrated the castle, capturing a banner of theChristian cross. The Ukai diary writes,
We dispersed spies who were prepared to die inside Hara castle. ... those who went on the reconnaissance in force captured an enemy flag; both Arakawa Shichirobei and Mochizuki Yo'emon met extreme resistance and suffered from their serious wounds for 40 days.
— Entry: 27th day of the 1st month
As the siege went on, the extreme shortage of food later reduced the defenders to eatingmoss and grass. This desperation would mount to futile charges by the rebels, where they were eventually defeated by the shogunate army. The Kōga would later take part in conquering the castle:
More and more general raids were begun, the Kōga ninja band under the direct control of Matsudaira Nobutsuna captured theni-no-maru and thesan-no-maru (outer bailey)
— Entry: 24th day of the 2nd month
With the fall of Hara Castle, the Shimabara Rebellion came to an end, and Christianity in Japan was forcedunderground.[41] These written accounts are the last mention of ninja in war.[42]
Edo period
After the Shimabara Rebellion, there were almost no major wars or battles until thebakumatsu era. To earn a living, ninja had to be employed by the governments of theirHan (domain), or change their profession. Many lords still hired ninja, not for battle but as bodyguards or spies. Their duties included spying on other domains, guarding the daimyō, and fire patrol.[43] A few domains likeTsu,Hirosaki andSaga continued to employ their own ninja into thebakumatsu era, although their precise numbers are unknown.[44][45]
Many former ninja were employed as security guards by theTokugawa shogunate, though the role of espionage was transferred to newly created organizations like theonmitsu and theoniwaban.[46] Others used theirninjutsu knowledge to become doctors, medicine sellers, merchants, martial artists, and fireworks manufacturers.[47] Some unemployed ninja were reduced to banditry, such asFūma Kotarō andIshikawa Goemon.[48]
Two prints depictingkabuki plays. In Japanese theatre, ninja are often dressed askuroko, stagehands in black suits, to make their attacks seem more surprising. This practice gave rise to their stereotypical black outfits.[50]
Many ubiquitous stereotypes about ninja were developed within Edo theatre. These include their black clothing, which was supposed to imitate the outfits worn bykuroko, stagehands meant to be ignored by the audience; and their use ofshuriken, which was meant to contrast with the use of swords by onstage samurai. Inkabuki theatre, ninja were "dishonorable and often sorcerous counterparts" to samurai, and possessed "almost, if not outright, magical means of camouflage."[50]
Contemporary
A copy of the legendary 40-page book calledKanrinseiyo made in 1748
Between 1960 and 2010 artifacts dating to theSiege of Odawara (1590) were uncovered which experts say are ninja weapons.[51] Ninja were spies and saboteurs and likely participated in the siege.[51] TheHojo clan failed to save the castle fromToyotomi Hideyoshi forces.[51] The uncovered flat throwing stones are likely predecessors of theshuriken.[51] The clay caltrops precededmakibishi caltrops.[51] Archeologist Iwata Akihiro ofSaitama Prefectural Museum of History and Folklore said the flat throwing stones "were used to stop the movement of the enemy who was going to attack [a soldier] at any moment, and while the enemy freezed the soldier escaped,".[51] The clay caltrops could "stop the movement of the enemy who invaded the castle," These weapons were hastily constructed yet effective and used by a "battle group which can move into action as ninjas".[51]
Mie University founded the world's first research centre devoted to the ninja in 2017. A graduate master course opened in 2018. It is located inIga (nowMie Prefecture). There are approximately 3 student enrollments per year. Students must pass an admission test about Japanese history and be able to read historical ninja documents.[52] Scientific researchers and scholars of different disciplines study ancient documents and how it can be used in the modern world.[53]
On June 19, 2022,Kōka city inShiga Prefecture announced that a written copy of "Kanrinseiyo", which is the original source of a famous book on the art of ninja called "Bansenshukai" (1676) from the Edo period was discovered in a warehouse of Kazuraki Shrine.[54] The handwritten reproduction was produced in 1748.[55] The book describes 48 types of ninjutsu.[54] It has information about specific methods such as attaching layers of cotton to the bottom of straw sandals to prevent noise when sneaking around, attacking to the right when surrounded by a large number of enemies, throwing charred owl and turtle powder when trying to hide, and casting spells.[54] It also clarified methods and how to manufacture and use ninjutsu tools, such as cane swords and "makibishi" (Japanese caltrop).[54]
Roles
In hisBuke Myōmokushō, military historian Hanawa Hokinoichi writes of the ninja:
They travelled in disguise to other territories to judge the situation of the enemy, they would inveigle their way into the midst of the enemy to discover gaps, and enter enemy castles to set them on fire, and carried out assassinations, arriving in secret.
Espionage
Espionage was the chief role of the ninja. With the aid of disguises, the ninja gathered information on enemy terrain and building specifications, as well as obtaining passwords and communiques. The aforementioned supplement to theNochi Kagami briefly describes the ninja's role in espionage:
Concerning ninja, they were said to be from Iga and Kōga, and went freely into enemy castles in secret. They observed hidden things, and were taken as being friends.
Later in history, the Kōga ninja would become regarded as agents of theTokugawabakufu, at a time when thebakufu used the ninja in an intelligence network to monitor regionaldaimyōs as well as theImperial court.[21]
Sabotage
Arson was the primary form of sabotage practiced by the ninja, who targeted castles and camps.
TheTamon-in Nikki (16th century)—a diary written by abbot Eishun ofKōfuku-ji temple—describes an arson attack on a castle by men of the Iga clans.
This morning, the sixth day of the 11th month ofTenbun 10 [1541], the Iga-shuentered Kasagi castle in secret and set fire to a few of the priests' quarters. They also set fire to outbuildings in various places inside theSan-no-maru. They captured theichi-no-maru (innerbailey) and theni-no-maru (second bailey).
In 1558,Rokkaku Yoshikata employed a team of ninja to set fire toSawayama Castle. Achūnin captain led a force of 48 ninja into the castle by means of deception. In a technique dubbedbakemono-jutsu ("ghost technique"), his men stole a lantern bearing the enemy's family crest (mon), and proceeded to make replicas with the samemon. By wielding these lanterns, they were allowed to enter the castle without a fight. Once inside, the ninja set fire to the castle, and Yoshitaka's army would later emerge victorious. The mercenary nature of theshinobi is demonstrated in another arson attack soon after the burning of Sawayama Castle. In 1561, commanders acting underKizawa Nagamasa hired three Iga ninja ofgenin rank to assist the conquest of a fortress inMaibara. Rokkaku Yoshitaka, the same man who had hired Iga ninja just years earlier, was the fortress holder—and target of attack. TheAsai Sandaiki writes of their plans: "We employedshinobi-no-mono of Iga... They were contracted to set fire to the castle". However, the mercenaryshinobi were unwilling to take commands. When the fire attack did not begin as scheduled, the Iga men told the commanders, who were not from the region, that they could not possibly understand the tactics of theshinobi. They then threatened to abandon the operation if they were not allowed to act on their own strategy. The fire was eventually set, allowing Nagamasa's army to capture the fortress in a chaotic rush.
Countermeasures
A variety of countermeasures were taken to prevent the activities of the ninja. Precautions were often taken against assassinations, such as weapons concealed in the lavatory, or under a removable floorboard. Buildings were constructed with traps and trip wires attached to alarm bells.[56]
Japanese castles were designed to be difficult to navigate, with winding routes leading to the inner compound. Blind spots and holes in walls provided constant surveillance of these labyrinthine paths, as exemplified inHimeji Castle.Nijō Castle inKyoto is constructed with long"nightingale" floors, which rested on metal hinges (uguisu-bari) specifically designed to squeak loudly when walked over. Grounds covered withgravel also provided early notice of unwanted intruders, and segregated buildings allowed fires to be better contained.[57]
Foreign ninja
On February 25, 2018, Yamada Yūji, the professor ofMie University and historian Nakanishi Gō announced that they had identified three people who were successful in early modernUreshino, including the ninja Benkei Musō (弁慶夢想).[45][58] Musō is thought to be the same person asDenrinbō Raikei (伝林坊頼慶), the Chinese disciple ofMarume Nagayoshi.[58] It came as a shock when the existence of a foreign samurai was verified by authorities.
Famous people
Kumawakamaru escapes his pursuers by swinging across the moat on abamboo.[59] Woodblock print on paper.Kuniyoshi, 1842–1843.
Many famous people in Japanese history have been associated or identified as ninja, but their status as ninja is difficult to prove and may be the product of later imagination. Rumors surrounding famous warriors, such asKusunoki Masashige orMinamoto no Yoshitsune sometimes describe them as ninja, but there is little evidence for these claims.
Hattori Hanzō (1542–1596): a samurai serving underTokugawa Ieyasu. His ancestry in Iga province, along withninjutsu manuals published by his descendants have led some sources to define him as a ninja.[61] This depiction is also common in popular culture.
Ishikawa Goemon (1558–1594): Goemon reputedly tried to drip poison from a thread intoOda Nobunaga's mouth through a hiding spot in the ceiling,[62] but many fanciful tales exist about Goemon, and this story cannot be confirmed.
Fūma Kotarō (d. 1603): a ninja rumored to have killed Hattori Hanzō, with whom he was supposedly rivals. The fictional weaponFūma shuriken is named after him.
Momochi Sandayū (16th century): a leader of the Iga ninja clans, who supposedly perished during Oda Nobunaga's attack on Iga province. There is some belief that he escaped death and lived as a farmer inKii Province.[63] Momochi is also a branch of the Hattori clan.
Fujibayashi Nagato (16th century): considered to be one of three "greatest" Igajōnin, the other two being Hattori Hanzō and Momochi Sandayū. Fujibayashi's descendants wrote and edited theBansenshukai.
Katō Danzō (1503–1569): a famed 16th-century ninja master during the Sengoku period who was also known as "Flying Katō".
Shimotsuge no Kizaru (16th century): an influential Iga ninja who in 1560 successfully led an attack onTōichi Castle.
Takino Jurobei (16th century): The commander of some of the final resistance against Oda Nobunaga in his invasion of Iga. Momochi Sandayu, Fujibayashi Nagato no Kami, and Hattori Hanzō served as his officers.
The image of the ninja entered popular culture in theEdo period, whenfolktales and plays about ninja were conceived. Stories about the ninja are usually based on historical figures. For instance, many similar tales exist about adaimyō challenging a ninja to prove his worth, usually by stealing his pillow or weapon while he slept.[64] Novels were written about the ninja, such asJiraiya Gōketsu Monogatari, which was also made into akabuki play. Fictional figures such asSarutobi Sasuke would eventually make their way into comics and television, where they have come to enjoy aculture hero status outside their original mediums.
^According to Imatani Akira, professor ofTsuru University, and Ishikawa Tadashi, assistant professorUniversity of Central Florida, duringSengoku period a particularly dangerous groups called"Ochimusha-gari" or "fallen warrior hunter" groups has emerged. these groups were disenfranchised peasant orRōnin who has been displaced by war. They formed self-defense forces which operates outside the law, while in actuality they often resorted to hunt samurais or soldiers who has been defeated in wars.[27][28][29]
^Fujiki Hisashi (2005).刀狩り: 武器を封印した民衆 (in Japanese). 岩波書店. p. 29･30.ISBN4004309654.Kunio Yanagita "History of Japanese Farmers"
^Kirino Sakuto (2001).真説本能寺 (学研M文庫 R き 2-2) (in Japanese). 学研プラス. pp. 218–9.ISBN4059010421.Tadashi Ishikawa quote
^Akira Imatani (1993).天皇と天下人. 新人物往来社. pp. 152–153,157–158, ､167.ISBN4404020732.Akira Imatani"Practice of attacking fallen warriors"; 2000; p.153 chapter 4
^Mitsuhisa Takayanagi (1958).戦国戦記本能寺の変・山崎の戦 (1958年) (in Japanese). 春秋社. p. 65. Retrieved9 May 2024.Luís Fróis;History of Japan..; Nihon Yoso-kai Annual Report", Japanese historical materials also show that Ieyasu distributed a large amount of gold and silver to his subordinates) A certain " Ishikawa Tadashi Sosho
^Yuji Yamada (2017).THE NINJA BOOK: The New Mansenshukai. Translated by Atsuko Oda. Mie University Facultyof Humanities, Law and Economics. Retrieved11 May 2024.
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