| Translations of Sati | |
|---|---|
| English | mindfulness |
| Sanskrit | smṛti |
| Pali | sati |
| Vietnamese | Niệm |
| Glossary of Buddhism | |
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Sati (Pali:sati;[1]Sanskrit:स्मृतिsmṛti), literally "memory"[2] or"retention",[3] commonly translated asmindfulness, "to remember to observe",[4] is an essential part ofBuddhist practice. It has the related meanings of calling to mind the wholesomedhammas such as thefour establishments of mindfulness, thefive faculties, thefive powers, theseven awakening-factors, theNoble Eightfold Path, and theattainment of insight,[5] and the actual practice of maintaining a lucid awareness of thedhammas[6] of bodily and mental phenomena, in order to counter the arising of unwholesome states, and to develop wholesome states.[7][8] It is the first factor of theSeven Factors of Enlightenment. "Correct" or "right" mindfulness (Pali:sammā-sati, Sanskritsamyak-smṛti) is the seventh element of theNoble Eightfold Path.
The Buddhist term translated into English as "mindfulness," "to remember to observe,"[4] originates in the Pali termsati and in its Sanskrit counterpartsmṛti. According to Robert Sharf, the meaning of these terms has been the topic of extensive debate and discussion.[8]Smṛti originally meant "to remember", "to recollect", "to bear in mind", as in theVedic tradition of remembering sacred texts. The termsati also means "to remember" the teachings of scriptures. In theSatipațțhāna-sutta the termsati means to maintain awareness of reality, where sense-perceptions are understood to be illusions and thus the true nature of phenomena can be seen.[8] Sharf refers to theMilindapanha, which explained that the arising ofsati calls to mind the wholesome dhammas such as thefour establishments of mindfulness, thefive faculties, thefive powers, theseven awakening-factors, theNoble Eightfold Path, and theattainment of insight.[5]According to Rupert Gethin,
[sati] should be understood as what allows awareness of the full range and extent ofdhammas;sati is an awareness of things in relation to things, and hence an awareness of their relative value. Applied to thesatipațțhānas, presumably what this means is thatsati is what causes the practitioner of yoga to "remember" that any feeling he may experience exists in relation to a whole variety or world of feelings that may be skillful or unskillful, with faults or faultless, relatively inferior or refined, dark or pure."[9][note 1]
Sharf further notes that this has little to do with "bare attention", the popular contemporary interpretation ofsati, "since it entails, among other things, the proper discrimination of the moral valence of phenomena as they arise".[9] According to Vetter,dhyana may have been the original core practice of the Buddha, which aided the maintenance of mindfulness.[10]
| Translations of Mindfulness | |
|---|---|
| English | mindfulness, awareness, inspection, recollection, retention |
| Sanskrit | smṛti (स्मृति) |
| Pali | sati |
| Chinese | niàn, 念 |
| Indonesian | perhatian penuh, kesadaran penuh |
| Japanese | 念 (ネン) (Rōmaji:nen) |
| Khmer | សតិ (UNGEGN:sate) |
| Korean | 념 (RR:nyeom) |
| Sinhala | සති |
| Tibetan | དྲན་པ (Wylie: dran pa; THL: trenpa/drenpa) |
| Thai | สติ (sati) |
| Vietnamese | niệm |
| Glossary of Buddhism | |
It originates from the Pali termsati and its Sanskrit counterpartsmṛti. From Sanskrit it was translated intotrenpa in Tibetan (transliteration:dran pa) andnian念 inChinese.
In 1881,Thomas William Rhys Davids first translatedsati into Englishmindfulness insammā-sati "Right Mindfulness; the active, watchful mind".[11] Noting that Daniel John Gogerly (1845) initially renderedsammā-sati as "Correct meditation",[12] Davids explained,
sati is literally 'memory' but is used with reference to the constantly repeated phrase 'mindful and thoughtful' (sato sampajâno); and means that activity of mind and constant presence of mind which is one of the duties most frequently inculcated on the good Buddhist."[13]
Henry Alabaster, inThe Wheel of the Law: Buddhism Illustrated From Siamese Sources by the Modern Buddhist, A Life of Buddha, and an Account of the Phrabat (1871), had earlier defined "Satipatthan/Smrityupasthana" as "The act of keeping one's self mindful."[14]
TheEnglish termmindfulness already existed before it came to be used in a (western) Buddhist context. It was first recorded asmindfulness in 1530 (John Palsgrave translatesFrenchpensee), asmindfulnesse in 1561, andmindfulness in 1817.Morphologically earlier terms includemindful (first recorded in 1340),mindfully (1382), and the obsoletemindiness (ca. 1200).[15]
John D. Dunne, an associate professor at University of Madison-Wisconsin whose current research focuses especially on the concept of "mindfulness" in both theoretical and practical contexts, asserts that the translation ofsati andsmṛti as mindfulness is confusing and that a number of Buddhist scholars have started trying to establish"retention" as the preferred alternative.[3]
Bhikkhu Bodhi also points to the meaning of "sati" as "memory":
The word derives from a verb, sarati, meaning “to remember,” and occasionally in Pali sati is still explained in a way that connects it with the idea of memory. But when it is used in relation to meditation practice, we have no word in English that precisely captures what it refers to. An early translator cleverly drew upon the word mindfulness, which is not even in my dictionary. This has served its role admirably, but it does not preserve the connection with memory, sometimes needed to make sense of a passage.[2]
However, inWhat Does Mindfulness Really Mean? A Canonical Perspective (2011), Bhikkhu Bodhi pointed out thatsati is not only "memory":
But we should not give this [meaning of memory] excessive importance. When devising a terminology that could convey the salient points and practices of his own teaching, the Buddha inevitably had to draw on the vocabulary available to him. To designate the practice that became the main pillar of his meditative system, he chose the wordsati. But heresati no longer means memory. Rather, the Buddha assigned the word a new meaning consonant with his own system of psychology and meditation. Thus it would be a fundamental mistake to insist on reading the old meaning of memory into the new context.… I believe it is this aspect ofsati that provides the connection between its two primary canonical meanings: as memory and as lucid awareness of present happenings.… In the Pāli suttas,sati has still other roles in relation to meditation but these reinforce its characterization in terms of lucid awareness and vivid presentation.[7]
Also, he quoted the below-mentioned comment by Thomas William Rhys Davids as "remarkable acumen":
But as happened at the rise of Buddhism to so many other expressions in common use, a new connotation was then attached to the word, a connotation that gave a new meaning to it, and renders ‘memory’ a most inadequate and misleading translation.
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TheSanskrit wordsmṛtiस्मृति (also transliterated variously assmriti,smRti, orsm'Rti) literally means "that which is remembered", and refers both to "mindfulness" in Buddhism and "a category of metrical texts" inHinduism, considered second in authority to theŚruti scriptures.
Monier Monier-Williams'sSanskrit-English Dictionary differentiates eight meanings ofsmṛtiस्मृति, "remembrance, reminiscence, thinking of or upon, calling to mind, memory":
Buddhist scholars translatedsmṛti with theChinese wordnian念 "study; read aloud; think of; remember; remind".Nian is commonly used inModern Standard Chinese words such asguannian觀念 (观念) "concept; idea",huainian懷念 (怀念) "cherish the memory of; think of",nianshu念書 (念书) "read; study", andniantou念頭 (念头) "thought; idea; intention". Two specialized Buddhist terms arenianfo念佛 "chant the name of Buddha; pray to Buddha" andnianjing念經 (念经) "chant/recite sutras".
ThisChinese characternian念 is composed ofjin今 "now; this" andxin心 "heart; mind".Bernhard Karlgren graphically explainsnian meaning "reflect, think; to study, learn by heart, remember; recite, read – to have今 present to心 the mind".[17] The Chinese characternian ornien念 is pronounced asKoreanyeom oryŏm염,Japaneseネン ornen, andVietnameseniệm.
A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms gives basic translations ofnian: "Recollection, memory; to think on, reflect; repeat, intone; a thought; a moment."[18]
TheDigital Dictionary of Buddhism gives more detailed translations ofnian "mindfulness, memory":
The terms sati/smriti have been translated as:
Originally, mindfulness provided the way to liberation, by paying attention to sensory experience, preventing the arising of disturbing thoughts and emotions which cause the further chain of reactions leading to rebirth.[21][22] In the later tradition, especially Theravada, mindfulness is an antidote to delusion (Pali:Moha), and is considered as such one of the 'powers' (Pali:bala) that contribute to the attainment ofnirvana, in particular when it is coupled withclear comprehension of whatever is taking place. Nirvana is a state of being in which greed, hatred anddelusion (Pali:moha) have been overcome and abandoned, and are absent from the mind.
TheSatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (Sanskrit:Smṛtyupasthāna Sūtra) is an early text dealing with mindfulness. The Theravada Nikayas prescribe that one should establish mindfulness (satipaṭṭhāna) in one's day-to-day life, maintaining as much as possible a calm awareness of the fourupassanā: one's body, feelings, mind, anddharmas.
According to Grzegorz Polak, the fourupassanā have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the fourupassanā do not refer to four different foundations, but to the awareness of four different aspects of raising mindfulness:[23]
Rupert Gethin notes that the contemporaryVipassana movement interprets theSatipatthana Sutta as "describing a pure form of insight (vipassanā) meditation" for whichsamatha (calm) andjhāna are not necessary. Yet, inpre-sectarian Buddhism, the establishment of mindfulness was placed before the practice of thejhanas, and associated with the abandonment of thefive hindrances and the entry into the firstjhana.[24][note 2]
According to Paul Williams, referring to Erich Frauwallner, mindfulness provided the way to liberation, "constantly watching sensory experience in order to prevent the arising of cravings which would power future experience into rebirths."[21][note 3]Buddhadasa also argued that mindfulness provides the means to prevent the arising of disturbing thought and emotions, which cause the further chain of reactions leading to rebirth of the ego and selfish thought and behavior.[25]
According to Vetter,dhyana may have been theoriginal core practice of the Buddha, which aided the maintenance of mindfulness.[10]
Satii was famously translated as "bare attention" byNyanaponika Thera. Yet, in Buddhist practice, "mindfulness" is more than just "bare attention"; it has the more comprehensive and active meaning ofsamprajaña, "clear comprehension," andapramāda, "vigilance".[26][note 4] All three terms are sometimes (confusingly) translated as "mindfulness", but they all have specific shades of meaning.
In a publicly available correspondence betweenBhikkhu Bodhi andB. Alan Wallace, Bodhi has described Ven.Nyanaponika Thera's views on "right mindfulness" and sampajañña as follows:
I should add that Ven. Nyanaponika himself did not regard “bare attention” as capturing the complete significance ofsatipaṭṭhāna, but as representing only one phase, the initial phase, in the meditative development of right mindfulness. He held that in the proper practice of right mindfulness, sati has to be integrated with sampajañña, clear comprehension, and it is only when these two work together that right mindfulness can fulfill its intended purpose.[27][note 5]
In theSatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, sati and sampajañña are combined withatappa (Pali; Sanskrit:ātapaḥ), or "ardency,"[note 6] and the three together compriseyoniso manasikara (Pali; Sanskrit:yoniśas manaskāraḥ), "appropriate attention" or "wise reflection."[28]
| English | Pali | Sanskrit/Nepali | Chinese | Tibetan |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| mindfulness/awareness | sati | smṛti स्मृति | 念 (niàn) | trenpa (wylie: dran pa) |
| clear comprehension | sampajañña | samprajñāna संप्रज्ञान | 正知力 (zhèng zhī lì) | sheshin (wylie: shes bzhin) |
| vigilance/heedfulness | appamāda | apramāda अप्रमाद | 不放逸座 (bù fàng yì zuò) | bakyö (wylie: bag yod) |
| ardency | atappa | ātapaḥ आतप | 勇猛 (yǒng měng) | nyima (wylie: nyi ma) |
| attention/engagement | manasikāra | manaskāraḥ मनस्कारः | 如理作意 (rú lǐ zuò yì) | yila jeypa (wylie: yid la byed pa) |
| foundation of mindfulness | satipaṭṭhāna | smṛtyupasthāna स्मृत्युपासना | 念住 (niànzhù) | trenpa neybar zagpa (wylie: dran pa nye bar gzhag pa) |
Ānāpānasati (Pali;Sanskrit:ānāpānasmṛti;Chinese: 安那般那;Pīnyīn:ānnàbānnà;Sinhala: ආනා පානා සති), meaning "mindfulness of breathing" ("sati" means mindfulness; "ānāpāna" refers to inhalation and exhalation), is a form ofBuddhist meditation now common to theTibetan,Zen,Tiantai, andTheravada schools of Buddhism, as well aswestern-based mindfulness programs. Anapanasati means to feel the sensations caused by the movements of the breath in the body, as is practiced in the context of mindfulness. According to tradition, Anapanasati was originally taught by the Buddha in several sutras including theĀnāpānasati Sutta.[note 7] (MN 118)
TheĀgamas of early Buddhism discuss ten forms of mindfulness.[note 8] According toNan Huaijin, the Ekottara Āgama emphasizes mindfulness of breathing more than any of the other methods, and provides the most specific teachings on this one form of mindfulness.[30]
Satipatthana, as four foundations of mindfulness, c.q.anapanasati, "mindfulness of breathing," is being employed to attain Vipassanā (Pāli),insight into the true nature of reality as impermanent andanatta, c.q.sunyata, lacking any permanent essence.[31][32]
In theTheravadin context, thisentails insight into thethree marks of existence, namely theimpermanence of and theunsatisfactoriness of every conditioned thing that exists, andnon-self. InMahayana contexts, it entails insight into what is variously described assunyata,dharmata, the inseparability of appearance and emptiness (two truths doctrine), clarity and emptiness, or bliss and emptiness.[33]
Vipassanā is commonly used as one of two poles for the categorization of types ofBuddhist practice, the other beingsamatha (Pāli; Sanskrit:śamatha).[34] Though both terms appear in theSutta Pitaka[note 9], Gombrich and Brooks argue that the distinction as twoseparate paths originates in the earliestinterpretations of the Sutta Pitaka,[39] not in the suttas themselves.[40][note 10]Vipassana andsamatha are described as qualities which contribute to the development of mind (bhāvanā). According to Vetter, Bronkhorst and Gombrich, discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development,[41][42][43] under pressure of developments in Indian religious thinking, which saw "liberating insight" as essential to liberation.[10] This may also have been due to an over-literal interpretation by later scholastics of the terminology used by the Buddha,[44] and to the problems involved with the practice ofdhyana, and the need to develop an easier method.[45] According to Wynne, the Buddha combinedmeditative stabilisation with mindful awareness and "an insight into the nature of this meditative experience."[46]
Various traditions disagree which techniques belong to which pole.[47] According to the contemporary Theravada orthodoxy, samatha is used as a preparation for vipassanā, pacifying the mind and strengthening the concentration in order to allow the work of insight, which leads toliberation.
Vipassanā-meditation has gained popularity in the west through the modern Buddhistvipassana movement, modeled afterTheravādaBuddhism meditation practices,[48] which employs vipassanā andānāpāna (anapanasati, mindfulness of breathing) meditation as its primary techniques and places emphasis on the teachings of theSatipaṭṭhānaSutta.
Mindfulness practice, inherited from the Buddhist tradition, is being employed inpsychology to alleviate a variety of mental and physical conditions, includingobsessive-compulsive disorder,anxiety, and in the prevention of relapse indepression anddrug addiction.[49]
Georges Dreyfus has expressed unease with the definition of mindfulness as "bare attention" or "nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness", stressing that mindfulness in Buddhist context means also "remembering", which indicates that the function of mindfulness also includes the retention of information. Dreyfus concludes his examination by stating:
[T]he identification of mindfulness with bare attention ignores or, at least, underestimates the cognitive implications of mindfulness, its ability to bring together various aspects of experience so as to lead to the clear comprehension of the nature of mental and bodily states. By over-emphasizing the nonjudgmental nature of mindfulness and arguing that our problems stem from conceptuality, contemporary authors are in danger of leading to a one-sided understanding of mindfulness as a form of therapeutically helpful spacious quietness. I think that it is important not to lose sight that mindfulness is not just a therapeutic technique but is a natural capacity that plays a central role in the cognitive process. It is this aspect that seems to be ignored when mindfulness is reduced to a form of nonjudgmental present-centered form of awareness of one’s experiences.[50]
Robert H. Sharf notes that Buddhist practice is aimed at the attainment of "correct view", not just "bare attention":
Mahasi's technique did not require familiarity with Buddhist doctrine (notably abhidhamma), did not require adherence to strict ethical norms (notably monasticism), and promised astonishingly quick results. This was made possible through interpreting sati as a state of "bare awareness" — the unmediated, non-judgmental perception of things "as they are," uninflected by prior psychological, social, or cultural conditioning. This notion of mindfulness is at variance with premodern Buddhist epistemologies in several respects. Traditional Buddhist practices are oriented more toward acquiring "correct view" and proper ethical discernment, rather than "no view" and a non-judgmental attitude.[51]
Jay L. Garfield, quotingShantideva and other sources, stresses that mindfulness is constituted by the union of two functions,calling to mind and vigilantlyretaining in mind. He demonstrates that there is a direct connection between the practice of mindfulness and the cultivation of morality – at least in the context ofBuddhism from which modern interpretations of mindfulness are stemming.[52]
At least we can say that liberation, according to the Buddha, was not simply a meditative experience but an insight into meditative experience. The Buddha taught that meditation must be accompanied by a careful attention to the basis of one's experience—the sensations caused by internal and external objects - and eventually an insight into the nature of this meditative experience. The idea that liberation requires a cognitive act of insight went against the grain of Brahminic meditation, where it was thought that the yogin must be without any mental activity at all, 'like a log of wood'.
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