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| Names | |
|---|---|
| IUPAC name (11S)-6α,12-Epoxyeudesma-1,4-diene-3,12-dione | |
| Systematic IUPAC name (3S,3aS,5aS,9bS)-3,5a,9-Trimethyl-3a,5,5a,9b-tetrahydronaphtho[1,2-b]furan-2,8(3H,4H)-dione | |
| Identifiers | |
| |
3D model (JSmol) | |
| ChEBI | |
| ChEMBL | |
| ChemSpider |
|
| ECHA InfoCard | 100.006.874 |
| KEGG | |
| UNII | |
| |
| |
| Properties | |
| C15H18O3 | |
| Molar mass | 246.30162 |
| Melting point | 172 °C (342 °F; 445 K) |
| Boiling point | 423 °C (793 °F; 696 K) |
| insoluble | |
| Vapor pressure | 1*10−7mmHg |
| Hazards | |
| Flash point | 190 °C (374 °F; 463 K) |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in theirstandard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). | |
Santonin is a drug which was widely used in the past as ananthelminthic. It is a terpenoid and anorganic compound consisting of colorless flat prisms, turning slightly yellow from the action of light and soluble inalcohol,chloroform and boiling water.
According to theUS Pharmacopoeia, santonin occurs "in colorless, shining, flattened, prismatic crystals, odorless and nearly tasteless when first put in the mouth, but afterward developing a bitter taste; not altered by exposure to air, but turning yellow on exposure to light. Nearly insoluble in cold water; soluble in 40 parts ofalcohol at 15 °C. (59 °F.), in 250 parts of boiling water, and in 8 parts of boiling alcohol; also soluble in 140 parts of ether, in 4 parts of chloroform, and in solutions of caustic alkalies. When heated to 170 °C. (338 °F.), santonin melts, and forms, if rapidly cooled, an amorphous mass, which instantly crystallizes oil coming in contact with a minute quantity of one of its solvents. At a higher temperature, itsublimes partly unchanged, and, when ignited, it is consumed, leaving no residue. Santonin is neutral tolitmus paper moistened with alcohol. Santonin yields, with an alcoholic solution ofpotassium hydroxide, a bright pinkish-red liquid, which gradually becomes colorless. From its solution in caustic alkalies, santonin is completely precipitated by supersaturation with an acid".[1]
It is derived from santonica (the unexpandedflower-heads ofArtemisia maritima var.stechmanniana). Others refer toA. cina orA. chamaemelifolia as being the derivative species.[2][3][4][5]
The determination of the structure of santonin was the subject of intense early work.[6][7][8] The initial photoproduct obtained from santonin is lumisantonin.[9] In thisrearrangement, the C-3 carbonyl group moves to C-2, the C-4 methyl moves to C-1, and the C-10 carbon inverts.
Santonin paralyzes parasitic worms (helminths), allowing them to be passed out of the body. Santonin has the effect of paralyzing the anterior (front) end of the worm, while having a stimulant effect on the posterior end, depending on the concentration. Because of this, the worm cannot coordinate itself, and loses its ability to maintain its position in the host.[10] By using a purgative, the worm can easily be passed out. Experiments in the 1880s showed that even after 40 hours, santonin had no lethal effect on roundworms using a saturated solution in dilute alkali.[11]
Santonin was formerly listed in U.S. and British pharmacopoeia, but it has fallen out of use with the development of saferascaricides and is no longer registered as a drug in most countries.[12]
Santonin can be converted tosantonic acid (C15H20O4) via based-catalyzedhydrolysis followed by a multistep rearrangement process.[13]
Santonin dissolves inalkalies with formation ofsalts of thiscarboxylic acid. Santonin, inacetic acid solution, when exposed to sunlight for about a month, is converted into (colorless) photosantonic acid (C15H22O5) which is generally regarded as lesstoxic. Theethylester of the latter is obtained when an alcoholic solution of santonin is exposed to sunlight (Sestini). A yellow coloration is developed upon exposure of santonin to light. Santonin is opticallylevorotatory.
The fullbiosynthesis of α-santonin has not been elucidated but α-santonin bears much similarity toparthenolide. The proposedbiosynthesis begins with the cyclization offarnesyl diphosphate (FPP) to (+)-germacrene A by a sesquiterpene synthase. (+)-germacrene Ahydroxylase then hydroxylates the isopropenyl side chain. Theoxidation of germacratrien-12-ol to germacratrien-12-oic acid via the intermediate germacratrien-12-al is done by NADP+-dependent dehydrogenase(s). Germacratrien-12-oic acid is then hydroxylated at C6 subsequently followed by lactonization forming(+)-costunolide.[14]
It was proposed that the methylene of (+)-costunolide is reduced before the second ring closure. The bicyclic decalin ring system is formed via theeudesmyl cation followed by hydroxylation at C1. Furtheroxidation at C3 forms the β-ketohydroxyl which upon elimination of H2O completes the proposed biosynthetic pathway of α-santonin.[15]
The chemistry of α-santonin upon exposure to sunlight has the distinction of being the first reported organic photochemical reaction. Trommsdorff reported in 1834 that crystals of α-santonin first turned yellow upon exposure to sunlight before "exploding".[16] The product of this solid-phase reaction was identified by Matsuura in 1968 as the product of photorearrangement, followed by a lattice-controlled Diels–Alder reaction and [2+2]-photocycloaddition.[17] On the other hand, exposure to light in the solution phase results in the formation of monomeric skeletal rearrangement products. The mechanism of the photodimerization has been investigated in detail.[18]
Santonin was developed in the 1830s by German chemists by extracting the chemical fromArtemisia cina, a plant fromTurkmenistan. At the timeArtemisia was often used as an antihelminthic remedy, and as a perennial it was widely accessible. A common remedy at the time used an infusion of 5–10 g herb in 500 ml water.Castor oil could be used to help the expulsion process. It was reported that by 1843 candy lozenges were available in Germany which contained santonin.
Santonin was used from the mid-19th century to the 1950s as ananthelminthic, typically administered with a purgative. Santonin was used in treatment of infestation by theroundwormAscaris lumbricoides and inascarid parasitoses in general (includingthreadworm parasitosis). It is ineffective in treatment oftapeworm infestation.
Santonin was often found as a major ingredient ofpatent remedies for intestinal worms. It was sold in numerous formulations with varying degrees of effectiveness, such as worm lozenges, powders, syrups, and tonics.[19]
It was reported by an official of the Eastern & Russian Trading Company that during 1926, Japanese manufacturers were mixing santonin into nearly all pastry, confections, and tonics as part of a government-sponsored effort to eradicate intestinal parasites; Japan at the time imported five tons of santonin from Russia annually.[20]
Encyclopædia Britannica (1911) notes that the typical dose was 2 to 5 grams. (This was atotal dose; many regimens called for three doses daily over three days, and the "three teaspoons three times a day for three days" regimen was typical around the 1950s when use of santonin was starting to wane; actual doses perdose were closer to 20–30 milligrams per adult dose in a typical "'50s regimen", but "one-shot" doses of santonin (especially via suppository) were common in the late 19th century–early 20th century.) The only formerly registered British preparation (as of 1911) was the "trochiscus santonini" (santonin lozenge), but the preparation "sodii santoninas" (soda of santonin) was also formerly listed as an official preparation in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. Commercial preparations containing santonin (usually containing a purgative laxative as well) also appeared in US drug formularies as late as the 1950s; theModern Drug Encyclopedia and Therapeutic Index of 1955 listed Lumbricide (produced by Massengill) and a generic santonin preparation made by Winthrop-Stearns (now Winthrop-Sanofi).
Santonin also was used in a lesser extent in treatment ofatony of the bladder. This usage largely dropped off after the early 20th century.
Dosage forms varied for santonin; in the 19th–20th centuries, santonin lozenges or suppositories designed for single-dosage treatment of ascarid infestation were the typical form of treatment, whilst in the 1950s the two remaining santonin preparations on the market in the United States were liquid medications.
Santonin was an agent that (compared to more modernanthelminthic drugs) was very complicated to use and entailed rather serious risk to the patient. Nearly every formulary and herbal which lists santonin or santonin-containing plants lists the real risk of yellow vision and of fatal reactions; even small doses of santonin cause disturbances of vision, usually yellow vision or perhaps green (xanthopsia orchromatopsia). Even theEncyclopædia Britannica noted:
...These effects usually pass off in a few days. Large doses, however, producetoxic effects,aphasia, muscular tremors and epileptiform convulsions, and the disturbances of vision may go on to totalblindness.
More typical is the warning given regarding side effects of santonin inKing's American Dispensatory:[citation needed]
Santonin is an active agent, and, in improper doses, is capable of producing serious symptoms, and even death. As small a dose as 2 grains is said to have killed a weakly child of 5 years, and 5 grains produced death in about 1/2 hour in a child of the same age. Among the toxic effects may be mentioned gastric pain, pallor and coldness of the surface, followed by heat and injection of the head, tremors, dizziness, pupillary dilatation, twitching of the eyes, stertor, copious sweating, hematuria, convulsive movements, tetanic cramps stupor, and insensibility. Occasionally symptoms resembling cholera morbus have been produced, and in all cases the urine presents a characteristic yellowish or greenish-yellow hue. We have observed convulsions caused by the administration of "worm lozenges." Death from santonin is due to respiratory paralysis, and post-mortem examination revealed in one instance a contracted and empty right ventricle, and about an ounce of liquid, black blood in the left heart, an inflamed duodenum, and inflamed patches in the stomach (Kilner).. . .Santonin often produces a singular effect upon the vision, causing surrounding objects to appear discolored, as if they were yellow or green, and occasionally blue or red; it also imparts a yellow or green color to the urine, and a reddish-purple color if that fluid be alkaline. Prof. Giovanni was led to believe that the apparent yellow color of objects observed by the eye, when under the influence of santonin, did not depend upon an elective action on the optic nerves, but rather to the yellow color which the drug itself takes when exposed to the air. Santonin colored by the air does not produce this effect, which only follows the white article. The air gives the yellow color to santonin, to passed urine containing it, and to the serum of the blood when drawn from a vein, and, according to Giovanni, it is owing to its direct action upon the aqueous humor, where it is carried by absorption, that objects present this color. The view now held, however, is that ofRose, that the alkaline serum dissolves the santonin, which then acts upon the perspective centers of the brain, producing the chromatopsia or xanthopsia.
At least one modern herbal has also noted these same severe side effects of santonin.
Even were it not for the fact that santonin is among the most toxic of herbalanthelminthic drugs, deworming using santonin is complicated in comparison to more modern anthelminthics. Typically, santonin must be taken whilst fasting completely (both before and after taking the drug) for "single dose" regimens or on a full stomach with all fats and oils in the diet being avoided for 2–3 days before treatment as well as during treatment and 2–3 days afterwards (due to santonin being fat soluble and having an increased risk of side effects); after a course of santonin, apurgative must be given to cleanse the body of the dead worms. (The two remaining registered santonin preparations in the United States as of 1955 were in fact santonin/purgative combinations; Lumbricide contained santonin and senna (among other ingredients) and the Winthrop-Stearns generic preparation was a santonin/cascara sagrada combination drug.)
Due to the severe side effects (even when used as directed), the need for a purgative, and the development of many safer deworming drugs, santonin has largely fallen out of use. Typicallymebendazole and pyrantel pamoate are used in modern pharmacopoeia practice where santonin was formerly used; even guides on holistic medicine strongly recommend avoiding the use of santonin due to its severe and occasionally fatal side effects and the availability of far safer anthelminthics.[21] The Council Directive 65/65 European EconomicCommunity (EEC) (in regards to pharmaceuticals and naturopathic preparations) has officially ruled santonin preparations to have an "unacceptable" risk-benefit ratio and preparations containing santonin are no longer eligible for registration in EU countries.[22]
Whileabsinthe is certainly more infamous for its content ofthujone,[23] the liquor does also contain small amounts of santonin[citation needed] . It has been speculated by some parties that Impressionist art—in particular, Van Gogh's artwork—may have been inspirednot by thujone and its presumed psychotropic effects, but on the "yellow vision" orxanthopsia which is a known side effect of santonin. This has been disputed, however, most notably by Arnold and Loftus (1991) who have noted the santonin content would have been insufficient to cause xanthopsia.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Santonin".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 195.
