Asailor,seaman,mariner, orseafarer is a person who works aboard awatercraft as part of its crew, and may work in any one of a number of different fields that are related to the operation and maintenance of a ship.
The profession of the sailor is old, and the termsailor has its etymological roots in a time whensailing ships were the main mode of transport at sea, but it now refers to the personnel of all watercraft regardless of the mode of transport, and encompasses people who operate ships professionally, be it for a militarynavy or civilianmerchant navy, as a sport or recreationally. In anavy, there may be further distinctions:sailor may refer to any member of the navy even if they are based on land, whileseaman may refer to a specificenlisted rank.
Artwork published in 1896 fromThe History of Mankind, which depicts adrua.
Polynesian navigators would sail to several islands east ofNew Guinea by 1500 BCE. Voyages would eventually be travelled across thePolynesian triangle. This extensivewayfinding was conducted through the use of specialized watercraft, observing stars, and awareness of other natural phenomena.[1]
Working conditions vary according to the nature of the sailor's employment. Whilst sailors may be employed on a vessel for extended periods of time, it is often not the case that sailors will spend the entirety of that period sailing since ships are often docked at a port for a significant period.[5] Mariners spend extended periods at sea. Most deep-sea mariners are hired for one or more voyages that last for several months. The length of time between voyages varies by job availability and personal preference.[6]
The rate of unionization for these workers in the United States is about 36 percent, much higher than the average for all occupations. Consequently, merchant marine officers and seamen, both veterans and beginners, are hired for voyages through union hiring halls or directly by shipping companies. Hiring halls fill jobs by the length of time the person has been registered at the hall and by their union seniority. Hiring halls typically are found in major seaports.[citation needed]
At sea, on larger vessels members of the deck department usually stand watch for four hours and are off for eight hours, seven days a week.[a][citation needed]
Mariners work in all weather conditions. Working in damp and cold conditions often is inevitable, although ships try to avoid severe storms while at sea. It is uncommon for modern vessels to suffer disasters such as fire, explosion, or a sinking. Yet workers face the possibility of having to abandon ship on short notice if it collides with other vessels or runs aground. Mariners also risk injury or death from falling overboard and from hazards associated with working with machinery, heavy loads, and dangerous cargo. However, modern safety management procedures, advanced emergency communications, and effective international rescue systems place modern mariners in a much safer position.[citation needed]
Most newer vessels are air conditioned, soundproofed from noisy machinery, and equipped with comfortable living quarters. These amenities have helped ease the sometimes difficult circumstances of long periods away from home. Also, modern communications such as email, instant messaging and social media platforms link modern mariners to their families. Nevertheless, some mariners dislike the long periods away from home and the confinement aboard ship. They consequently leave the profession.[citation needed]
Portrait of a sailor taken on board the Frenchaviso Ardent, 1857
Professional mariners live on the margins of society, with much of their life spent beyond the reach of land. They face cramped, stark, noisy, and dangerous conditions at sea. Yet men and women still go to sea. For some, the attraction is a life unencumbered with the restraints of life ashore. Seagoing adventure and a chance to see the world also appeal to many seafarers. Whatever the calling, those who live and work at sea invariably confront social isolation.[citation needed]
Findings by the Seafarer's International Research Center indicate a leading cause of mariners leaving the industry is "almost invariably because they want to be with their families". U.S. merchant ships typically do not allow family members to accompany seafarers on voyages. Industry experts increasingly recognize isolation, stress, and fatigue as occupational hazards. Advocacy groups such as International Labor Organization, a United Nations agency, and the Nautical Institute seek improved international standards for mariners.[citation needed]
Helen Sampson, a professor at Cardiff University, notes that a key challenge facing mariners is an adjustment to timezones as the ship sails through various oceans. An adopted solution is to gradually adjust the timings of the ship which often leads to wake-up times being adjusted periodically. Sampson further notes that ships often have a 'dry ship' or 'no alcohol' policy which prohibits even the possession of alcohol with 'random testing' taking place 'fairly regularly'.[7]
Sailors on a ship
One's service aboard ships typically extends for months at a time, followed by protracted shore leave. However, some seamen secure jobs on ships they like and stay aboard for years. In rare cases, veteran mariners choose never to go ashore when in port.[citation needed]
Further, the quick turnaround of many modern ships, spending only a matter of hours in port, limits a seafarer's free-time ashore. Moreover, some seafarers entering U.S. ports from a watch list of 25 countries deemed high-risk face restrictions on shore leave due to security concerns in a post9/11 environment. However, shore leave restrictions while in U.S. ports impact American seamen as well. For example, theInternational Organization of Masters, Mates & Pilots notes a trend of U.S. shipping terminal operators restricting seamen from traveling from the ship to the terminal gate. Further, in cases where transit is allowed, special "security fees" are at times assessed.[citation needed]
Such restrictions on shore leave coupled with reduced time in port by many ships translate into longer periods at sea. Mariners report that extended periods at sea living and working with shipmates who for the most part are strangers takes getting used to. At the same time, there is an opportunity to meet people from a wide range of ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Recreational opportunities have improved aboard some U.S. ships, which may feature gyms and day rooms for watching movies, swappingsea stories, and other activities. And in some cases, especially tankers, it is made possible for a mariner to be accompanied by members of his family. However, a mariner's off-duty time at sea is largely a solitary affair, pursuing hobbies, reading, writing letters, and sleeping.[citation needed]
Internet accessibility is fast coming to the sea with the advent of cheap satellite communication, mainly fromInmarsat. The availability of affordable roaming SIM cards with online top-up facilities have also contributed to improved connection with friends and family at home.[citation needed]
Seafarers hold a variety of professions and ranks. Minimum international standards for merchant vessels are regulated by theSTCW Convention.[8] Certifications regarding safety and basic firefighting must be renewed every five years.[9] TheMaritime Labour Convention regulates other standards surrounding maritime employment in the 96 countries that have ratified it such as accommodations and payment of wages.[10] As of 2021, an estimated 1.28% of workers in the maritime industry were women.[11]
Officer positions in thedeck department include but are not limited to:master and hischief,second andthird officers. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the deck department areable seaman andordinary seaman.[12] With some variation, the chief mate is most often charged with the duties of cargo mate. Second Mates are charged with being the medical officer in case of a medical emergency. All three mates each do four-hour morning and afternoon shifts on the bridge, when underway at sea.
A ship's engineering department consists of the members of a ship's crew that operates and maintains the propulsion and other systems on board the vessel. Marine engineering staff also deal with the "hotel" facilities on board, notably thesewage, lighting,air conditioning and water systems. Engineering staff manages bulk fuel transfers, from a fuel-supply barge in port. When underway at sea, the second and third engineers will often be occupied with oil transfers from storage tanks, to active working tanks. Cleaning of oil purifiers is another regular task. Engineering staff is required to have training infirefighting and first aid. Additional duties include maintaining the ship's boats and performing other nautical tasks. Engineers play a key role in cargo loading/discharging gear and safety systems, though the specific cargo discharge function remains the responsibility of deck officers and deck workers.
The chief steward directs, instructs, and assigns personnel performing such functions as preparing and serving meals; cleaning and maintaining officers' quarters and steward department areas; and receiving, issuing, and inventorying stores.
The chief steward also plans menus, compiles supply, overtime, and cost control records. The steward may requisition or purchase stores and equipment. Galley's roles may include baking.
A chief steward's duties may overlap with those of thesteward's assistant, thechief cook, and other Steward's department crewmembers.
Various types of staff officer positions may exist on board a ship, including junior assistant purser, senior assistant purser,purser, chief purser,medical doctor, professionalnurse, marine physician assistant, andhospital corpsman. In the USA these jobs[13] are considered administrative positions and are therefore regulated by Certificates of Registry issued by the United States Coast Guard.Pilots are also merchant marine officers and are licensed by the Coast Guard.
^On smaller vessels with a single mate 6 hours on and 6 hours off are common. Mariners employed on Great Lakes ships work 60 days and have 30 days off. They do not work in the winter when the lakes are frozen. Workers on rivers, on canals, and in harbors are more likely to have year-round work. Some work 8-hour or 12-hour shifts and go home every day. Others work steadily for a week or a month and then have an extended period off. When working, they usually are on duty for 6 or 12 hours and off for 6 or 12 hours. Those on smaller vessels are normally assigned to one vessel and have steady employment.
^Sampson, Helen (2024).Sea-Time: An Ethnographic Adventure. London: Routledge. pp. 51–52.ISBN9781003440123.
^Witt, Jörn-Ahrend (2007).Obligations and Control of Flag States: Developments and Perspectives in International Law and EU Law. Lit Verlag. p. 107.ISBN9783825810566.
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