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Romanian literature (Romanian:Literatura română) is the entirety of literature written by Romanian authors, although the term may also be used to refer to all literature written in theRomanian language or by any authors native toRomania.
The development of Romanian literature has taken place in parallel with that of the richRomanian folklore – lyric, epic, dramatic and didactic – which continues in modern times.[1] Romanianoral literature includesdoine (lyric songs),balade (ballads),hore (dance songs),colinde (carols),basme (fairy tales),snoave (anecdotes),vorbe (proverbs), andghicitori (riddles). The folk pastoral balladMiorița is one of the best known examples of Romanian folk literature.
The Script ofOld Church Slavonic began to be used in theterritories of current day Romania as early as the 10th Century, with the oldest surviving manuscripts being dated as far back as the 12th Century. The earliest dated texts in Slavonic, originally from Wallachia and Moldavia, consist of a series of Religious Songs by Nicodim & Filotei and a Hagiographical text by Grigore Țamblâc, all being dated between 1385 and 1391. Also by the 15th century many copies of medieval Slavonic texts have been created by the scribes of the Danubian Principalities.[2]
In the meantime numerous Slavonic and Greek translations of popularmedieval romances were in circulation across theDanubian Principalities, like theAlexander Romance andBarlaam and Josaphat.[3]
Particularly of note isThe Teachings of Neagoe Basarab to his son Theodosie: a series of teachings on morality and politics, written between 1519 and 1521, by theWallachian LordNeagoe Basarab,[4] a work written in the spirit of theRenaissance[5] and considered one of the oldest great works of Southeastern European literature.[6]
| Reformation-era literature |
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The earliest books in Romanian were translated fromSlavonic religious texts in the 15th century.Psaltirea Hurmuzaki,Codicele Voronețean,Psaltirea Voronețeană,Psaltirea Scheiană, and others are religious texts from Moldavia that carry evidence of being translations of manuscripts written in the other languages in the Banat-Hunedoara area.[7] Of them,Hurmuzaki Psalter, a Romanian copy of a bilingual Church Slavonic - Romanian Psalter,[8] has been dated between 1491–1504 by watermarks,[9] making it the oldest preserved manuscript in Romanian.[10]
The earliest surviving document in Romanian that can be precisely dated isNeacșu's letter written in 1521, to thejude ("judge and mayor") ofBrașov, Hans Benkner.[11]
The first book printed in Wallachia was a Slavonic religious book, printed in 1508 atTârgoviște.[12] The first book printed in the Romanian language wasCatehismul românesc byFilip Moldoveanul in 1544.[13][14] Other translations from Greek and Slavonic books were printed later in the 16th century.[15]Dosoftei, a Moldavian Bishop, in 1673, published the first Romanian metrical psalter, the earliest collection of poems written in Romanian.[16][17]
Early efforts to publish the Bible in Romanian started with the 1582 printing in the small town ofOrăștie of the so-calledPalia de la Orăștie – a translation of the first books of theOld Testament – printed by Deacon Șerban (the son of DeaconCoresi) andMarien Diacul (Marien the Scribe).Palia was translated by BishopMihail Tordașet al. from the Pentateuch printed atKolozsvár in 1551 byGáspár Heltai and a version ofVulgate.[18]
The entire Bible was not published in Romanian until the end of the 17th century, when the Metropolitanate's Press of Bucharest printedBiblia de la București ("The Bucharest Bible") in 1688,[19] compiled by the Greceanu Brothers.[20]
InTransylvania, there was also an attestation of the explicit use of a Latin model, with the appearance of the first Romanian dictionary,Dictionarium Valachico-Latinum (Caransebeș, about 1650), while the first grammar of the Romanian language written in Latin wasInstitutiones linguae Valachicae (Crișana, circa 1770).[21]
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The first appearances ofhumanism inMoldavia andWallachia were in the 16th century with the likes ofLuca Stroici andPetru Cercel, but it took another century for these ideas to fully flourish. This delay can be attributed to the continuation ofByzantine culture in the Danubian Principalities, or to the differentsocial classes compared to Western Europe.[22]
During the 17th century via Poland and itsJesuit schools, having as representatives the likes ofGrigore Ureche,Miron Costin, andIon Neculce with their chronicles on the history of Moldavia.[23] Following the example ofPetro Movilă'sKyiv Colegium, theLordsMatei Basarab andVasile Lupu establishedNeoclassical schools such as the Schola Graeca et Latina and theIași Colegiu.[24]
The most significant Romanian humanist wasDimitrie Cantemir, who wrote histories of Wallachia, Moldavia and theOttoman Empire, and philosophical and religious treaties such asThe Divan [ro],The Indescribable Image of Sacred Science, andThe Little Compendium of Logic.[25][26] He also wrote theRoman à clefA Hieroglyphic History in 1705.[27]
In 18th century Transylvania, throughout theBlaj Schools ofInocențiu Micu-Klein, a Latinist andEnlightenment movement, theȘcoala Ardeleană emerged, producingphilological studies of theRomantic origin of the Romanian language.[28] Among the many works onRomanian history and the Romanian language bySamuil Micu-Klein,Gheorghe Șincai andPetru Maior,[29] the "Heroic-comic-satiric Poem"Țiganiada byIon Budai-Deleanu, can also be found, promoting democratic and enlightenment ideals.[30]
In Wallachia and Moldavia, the Enlightenment can be seen in the Poems and Prose ofIancu Văcărescu,[31]Costache Conachi,[32] andDinicu Golescu.[33]
In 1829, inWallachia,Ion Heliade Rădulescu founded the first Romanian-language Newspaper,Curierul Românesc,[34] and cofounded the Philharmonic Society which later created theNational Theatre of Bucharest.[35]Albina Românească, a similar publication to Curierul Românesc was started contemporaneously byGheorghe Asachi inMoldavia.[36]
In the 1800s, the revolutionary ideas ofnationalism spreading in Europe were also circulating among Romanians who desired national independence from theOttoman Empire. These nationalistic attitudes led to the revolutions of1821 and1848.[37] These ideas were mainly propagated byMihail Kogălniceanu's publication,Dacia Literară, which was adaptingFrench Romanticism to Romanian writing with the purpose of creating an original national literature.[38]
The works of these writers, later dubbed Pașoptists (after theRevolution of 1848), have been shown not only to containRomantic but also Neoclassical andRealist traits.[38]Vasile Alecsandri was a prolific writer, contributing to Romanian literature with poetry, prose, theChirița plays (1850–1875), historical dramas such asDespot Vodă (1879), and collections of Romanian folklore.[39] Also, taking inspiration from history,Constantin Negruzzi wrote the novella Alexandru Lăpușneanul (1840).[40] Other Pașoptist writers includeVasile Cârlova,Grigore Alexandrescu,Anton Pann, andAlecu Donici.[38]
The literary circleJunimea, founded inIași in 1863 byTitu Maiorescu,Petre P. Carp,Vasile Pogor,Theodor Rosetti andIacob Negruzzi began publishing the magazineConvorbiri Literare in1867, which eventually became the most important Romanian language literary publication in the 2nd half of the 19th century and 1st half of the 20th century.[41] Through his links with Junimea, literary critic Titu Maiorescu set the direction of synchronizing Romanian literature both with otherEuropean literary movements and withRomanian folklore.[42][43]
Many outstanding Romanian writers, includingGeorge Coșbuc[44] andBarbu Ştefănescu Delavrancea, published their works inConvorbiri Literare.[44][45]
Other notable authors of this era areNicolae Bălcescu,Dimitrie Bolintineanu,Alecu Russo,Nicolae Filimon,Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu,Alexandru Odobescu,Grigore Alexandrescu andPetre Ispirescu.
The first Romanian novel is considered to beManoil (published in 1855) byDimitrie Bolintineanu (if one excludes from the definition of novel the allegorical literary workIstoria ieroglifică byDimitrie Cantemir, which was written between 1703 – 1705).[46] Bolintineanu also published the novel Elena (1862).[46] However these two novels are largely forgotten, although they are considered relevant from the point of view of describing Romanian society in the mid-19th century.[46]Nicolae Filimon is considered the father of the Romanian novel,[47] having written the influential novelCiocoii vechi și noi (1863).
Among the many writers ofJunimea, four are considered to be the Great Classics of Romanian Literature: the poetMihai Eminescu, thesatiristIon Luca Caragiale,Ioan Slavici, andIon Creangă.[48][49]
Mihai Eminescu is considered by many critics to be the most important and influentialRomanian poet.[50] His lyrical poetry has its roots in Romanian folklore intertwined withKantian[51] andSchopenhauer's philosophy[52] andBuddhist cosmology.[53] Among his greatest poems are theromantic poemsFloare Albastră (1872) andLuceafărul, as well as the series of five philosophical poems calledLetters (1881–1890).[54][55]
Ioan Slavici is one of the best known Romanian novella writers.[56] His works can be categorized as Realist[57]Bildungsromans. They are mainly set inTransylvania and haveMoralistic psychological undertones.[58] His most famous works are the novellasMoara cu noroc andPopa Tanda, and the novelMara.[58][59]
Ion Luca Caragiale, wrote some of the best Romanian comedies, sketches andfarces.[60] Among his best known plays areO Noapte Furtunoasă (1879),O Scrisoare Pierdută (1884), andD-ale Carnavalului (1885).[61]
Ion Creangă wrote personalized retellings of folkloric tales,[62] of which some of the best known arePovestea lui Harap Alb (1877),Păcală (1880), andFăt-Frumos fiul Iepei (1877).[63] Of further note are his autobiographical memoirs fromAmintiri din copilarie.[64][63]
From 1901 to 1910, through the activity of the publicationSămănătorul, founded byGeorge Coșbuc andAlexandru Vlahuță, and later under the editorial watch of historianNicolae Iorga, a new literary movement formed.[65][66] A movement concentrated on preserving traditional values and idealising rural life,[67] a continuationEminescu's Romanticism.[66][67]
AmongSămănătorul's authors wereGeorge Coșbuc a poet, translator, teacher, and journalist, best known for his verses describing, praising and eulogizing rural life,[44] author of Pașa Hasan, Nunta Zamfirei and Moartea lui Fulger;[66] but alsoAlexandru Vlahuță,Octavian Goga,Duiliu Zamfirescu, Ștefan O. Iosif,Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea,Ion Agârbiceanu andAlexandru Macedonski.[66] Although Goga and Agârbiceanu have become later associated withPoporanism and the publication,Viața Românească.[68]
After achieving national unity in 1918, Romanian literature entered what can be called agolden age, characterized by two opposite literary movements, Traditionalism andModernism, and by the development of the Romanian novel.[69][70][71] Theinterwar period of Romanian literature was a very rich and creative time, with numerous literary works being published during that period, addressing a variety of themes, includinghistorical novels, novels depictingrural life, war,romantic love, social class andexistential themes .[72][73]
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Traditional society and recent political events influenced works such asLiviu Rebreanu'sRăscoala ("The Uprising", 1932), which was inspired by the1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt, andPădurea Spânzuraților ("Forest of the Hanged"), published in 1922 and inspired by Romanian participation inWorld War I. Rebreanu's novelIon, published in 1920, presents the life of peasants and intellectuals in early twentieth century Transylvania, and is said to be the most read Romanian novel.[74] The dawn of the modern novel can be seen inHortensia Papadat-Bengescu'sConcert din muzică de Bach ("A Bach Concert"),Camil Petrescu'sUltima noapte de dragoste, întâia noapte de război ("The Last Night of Love, the First Night of War") andMateiu Caragiale’sCraii de Curtea-Veche ("The Rakes of Old Court").George Călinescu is another complex personality of Romanian literature: novelist, playwright, poet, literary critic and historian, essayist, journalist. He published authoritative monographs about Eminescu and Creangă, and a monumental (almost 1,000 pages in quarto) history of Romanian literature from its origin to the time of his writing (1941). He is also the author of the novelEnigma Otliei ("The Enigma of Otilia").
An important realist writer wasMihail Sadoveanu, who wrote mainly novels which took place at various times in thehistory of Moldova. But probably the most important writers wereTudor Arghezi,Lucian Blaga, andMircea Eliade. Arghezi revolutionized Romanian poetry 50 years after Eminescu, creating new pillars for the modern Romanian poem. Blaga, one of the country's most important artistic personalities, developed through his writings a complex system of philosophy, still not perfectly understood today. Eliade is today considered the greatest historian in the field of religions. His novels reveal a mystical, pre-Christian symbolism paving the way for contemporary Romanian art.
Born in Romania,Tristan Tzara, a poet and essayist, is the main founder ofDada, anihilistic revolutionary movement in the arts, and may have been responsible for its name (Romanian for "Yes yes"). Later he abandoned nihilism forSurrealism andMarxism. For the first time in its history, Romanian culture was fully connected to Western culture, while Dadaism is the first Romanian artistic and literary movement to become international. Dadaism and Surrealism are fundamental parts of theavant-garde, the most revolutionary form of modernism. The Romanianavant garde is very well represented byIon Minulescu,Gherasim Luca,Urmuz,Perpessicius, Tristan Tzara,Grigore Cugler,Geo Bogza,Barbu Fundoianu,Gellu Naum,Ilarie Voronca, andIon Vinea.Max Blecher was a novelist whose life was cut short by health problems.
George Bacovia was asymbolist poet. While he initially belonged to the localSymbolist movement, his poetry came to be seen as a precursor of Romanian Modernism. Some important literary figures of this period were also active in other domains.Vasile Voiculescu was a Romanian poet, short-story writer, playwright, and physician.Ion Barbu was a poet, as well as an important mathematician.
Cezar Petrescu was a journalist, novelist, and children's writer. He is especially remembered for his children's bookFram, ursul polar ("Fram, thepolar bear"; the circus animal character was named afterFram, the ship used byFridtjof Nansen on his expeditions).Elena Farago was also a children's writer and poet.
Ion Agârbiceanu was a writer, as well as a politician, theologian andGreek-Catholic priest.Gala Galaction was another writer, who was also anEastern Orthodox clergyman and theologian.
Other literary figures of this era includeMihail Sebastian,Ionel Teodoreanu,Panait Istrati,Gib Mihăescu,Anton Holban,Otilia Cazimir,Ion Pillat andGeorge Topîrceanu.
Marin Preda is an important post-World War II Romanian novelist. His novel,Moromeții ("The Moromete Family"), describes the life and difficulties of an ordinary peasant family in pre-war Romania, and later during the advent ofCommunism in Romania. His most important book remainsCel mai iubit dintre pământeni ("The Most Beloved of Earthlings"), a cruel description of communist society.Zaharia Stancu published his first important novel,Desculț (Barefoot), in 1948. Both Preda and Stancu depicted rural life in Southern Romania (both writers were born inTeleorman County).
Some of the most important poets areNichita Stănescu,Marin Sorescu,Ana Blandiana,Leonid Dimov, andȘtefan Augustin Doinaș.[75] An important novelist of this era wasRadu Tudoran.Mircea Nedelciu was a short-story writer, novelist, essayist and literary critic.
Outside Romania,Eugène Ionesco andEmil Cioran represented the national spirit at the highest level. Ionesco is one of the foremost playwrights of theTheatre of the Absurd. Beyond ridiculing the most banal situations, Ionesco's plays depict in a tangible way the solitude of humans and the insignificance of one's existence. Cioran was a writer and philosopher.
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Some Romanian contemporary writers:
